The Roman military is considered one of the greatest militaries of all time. With an empire that stretched across Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, the Roman empire’s strength largely came off its famous legions. But while a good bit of the history books are devoted to the great battles, campaigns, and generals of Rome, not as much focus is put on the individual legionnaires that made up the Roman army.
So, with that being said, here are fifty insane facts about Roman legions and the lives they led from their point of view. Number Fifty Not just anybody could join one of Rome’s legions. In order to qualify for military service, prospective recruits had to meet a laundry list of requirements.
The first of these was to be an actual Roman citizen. While Roman citizenship was eventually granted to all free men, this was not the case for most of Rome's history. Only full Roman citizens could join.
Those of lesser citizenship classes, like those from conquered territories, could join auxiliary units instead. Roman citizens could also join an auxiliary unit if the regular legions were not accepting recruits at that time. Besides being a full Roman citizen, recruits also could not be married.
However, that did not stop some unhappily married men from running away from home and joining a legion. Doing so was considered an immediate declaration of divorce. Recruits must also be healthy and come from a favorable trade.
Among some of the most desired trades Roman recruiters sought men from were butchers, blacksmiths, and reapers. This was due to the physical nature of the work that created strong men who were used to working with their hands. Speaking of hands, recruits must also have all their fingers and thumbs to qualify for service.
While this might be overlooked during times of emergency, not having one index finger or thumb would be grounds for denial. The reason for this is that it’s much harder to grip a sword and shield without them, so the man could be a liability for those around him. Lastly, prospective legionnaires also needed a full set of male genitalia.
Eunuchs, males who had their testicles purposefully severed as a child, and women need not apply. However, due to problems with recruiting, the regulations eventually relaxed to allow men who possessed just one testicle to join. Number Forty-Nine Legionnaires were pretty tall for the time.
To be considered fit for military service, prospective recruits needed to be at least five feet ten inches in Roman feet. A Roman foot is about a third of an inch shorter than in a US customary foot. So that means unless you were at least five eight by today’s standards, the legions were closed to you unless you were a very stocky individual.
Number Forty-Eight Rome’s legions did not want hardcore criminals. Those who may have had a life of petty crime before could find a new life and fresh start in the legion. However, those wanting to escape prosecution for a serious crime or to return from exile couldn’t sign up.
Those who tried to do so would not only be rejected but turned over to the proper authorities for prosecution. However, Roman officers did not have the luxury of the different background checks available to us today. So, how did they figure out a recruit’s character?
Number Forty-Seven Along with the previously mentioned requirements to join a legion, one of the last hurdles to pass is a recruit needing at least one letter of recommendation attesting to their character and future abilities as a soldier. Not surprisingly, letters that came from veteran soldiers carried the most weight. For a little icing on top, getting a letter from someone who had served in the legion you wanted to join was considered the best way to get accepted.
Number Forty-Six Before recruits could be inducted, they had to pass one last test. Known as the probatio, this was an interview with legionary officers after the recruiting officer screened the candidate. If accepted, the recruit took the Military Oath immediately and became a soldier of Rome.
Number Forty-Five After having taken the Military Oath, one of the first tasks as a soldier was to report to their cohort commander's tent to have detailed information written down about them on the unit's muster rolls. Besides each man's name, information like his height, age, hair color, eye color, scars, marks, tattoos, and any other identifying features was recorded. Such information would prove useful later on in case they had to recover his body from a pile of corpses on the battlefield or if he was arrested on suspicion of desertion if caught away from his unit.
Number Forty-Four If a man was recruited far away from his legion, the Roman army would pay an often substantial amount of money for the recruit to arrive at their base. If multiple men were recruited at once, the recruiting officer or cohort commander might take their money and pay for transportation to their new home. Once they arrived, the remainder would be split and deposited into their accounts.
Those who travel alone may have to rough it out and have a nice little nest egg to start off their military career. Number Forty-Three Once arriving at his base, the recruit must then learn the basics of a legion’s structure. During most of the Republican period, the legion was divided into ten maniples with around 120 men split into three ranks in each maniple.
During the late Republican period and the Imperial period, as the legions grew in size, Roman legions consisted of ten cohorts of around 480 men each. Each cohort was further divided into four maniples of 120 men each. Each maniple had two centuries.
Each century was led by a centurion and had about 60 men in each one. With these numbers, the total strength of a fully manned legion was around 6,000 personnel. But if you were doing the math, this would mean only about 4,800 men were accounted for, so who made up the rest?
Number Forty-Two To reach the ideal number of 6,000, the first cohort was always an overstrength cohort of 800 men. The remainder of the balance was made up of support troops like cooks and blacksmiths. However, most Roman legions were chronically undermanned and struggled to maintain this 4,800 figure at any given time.
Number Forty-One After induction, new recruits would enlist for 25-year terms. After completion of these enlistments, the veteran soldier could now retire. The process of retirement payments in the form of land or cash began in earnest during the end of the Republican period.
To save the Roman treasury money over time, Octavian, later Emperor Augustus, seized land from wealthy individuals or sold grain to pay cash retirement bonuses to soldiers who did not want land. It was not until the year 6 AD that Augustus created the official Military Treasury, which was funded through his generous donation equivalent to around $500 million in today's currency, along with a variety of taxes. This fund would eventually pay for equipment, salaries, and retirements of Roman soldiers for the next several hundred years.
Number Forty Each legion had its own unique identity. Some legions have been around for hundreds of years, while others might only last a few decades. Where a legion was stationed largely dictated its unit's customs, traditions, and courtesies.
Additionally, legions that were wiped out or surrendered were removed from standard naming conventions. For example, the 17th, 18th, and 19th legions were annihilated in the battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD. Rome never used those unit designations ever again.
Number Thirty-Nine Roman legions did not go into battle by themselves. Though movies often portray Roman battles as masses of line infantry, this was not the case. Rome had numerous cavalry units.
These units were open to both citizens and non-citizens alike. Roman citizens used to prefer serving in the cavalry, but by the Imperial period, the allure of serving in the cavalry had diminished since their votes did not count more than a legionary's vote in elections as they used to during the early Republican period. Instead, many non-Romans with money joined the cavalry.
These units were pretty useful both during, before, and after the battle. During the battle, Roman cavalry was used to create diversions or strike an enemy's flank when he was weak. Before the battle, cavalrymen were also used as scouts and reported enemy movements.
After the battle, these troops moved ahead to cut down fleeing enemies while legionaries rested after a hard day of fighting. But cavalry were not the only other troops on the battlefield. Number Thirty-Eight Auxiliary cohorts often accompanied Roman legions into battle.
Auxiliary units were not nearly as structured or regimented as the Roman legion was for a few reasons. Firstly, Roman generals wanted to avoid too many foreigners in their ranks lest they overwhelm the legion in a coup. Secondly, auxiliary troops were often raised when needed and could be recruited locally.
It was much easier to raise a cohort of several hundred men than several thousand. Auxiliaries also had many of the skills that Roman line infantry did not possess. Cavalry, archers, slingers, and scouts are a few of the skills auxiliary troops brought to the battlefield for the legion.
Number Thirty-Seven Roman legions relied on auxiliary troops for local expertise. Though usually posted in one area, it was pretty common in times of emergency or war for entire legions to cross the empire. For example, during the Parthian wars, several legions were called from Britain and along the Rhine to fight in the Middle East.
Auxiliary troops were crucial to gain local knowledge of these areas. These soldiers understood local customs and traditions, could speak local languages, and their methods of warfare were suited to the local area. For instance, keeping Batavian infantry, who were excellent swimmers, in the Rhine area was a smarter move than transferring them to the deserts of North Africa.
Number Thirty-Six Beyond providing Roman legions with local expertise, the Roman army integrated them fully into their battle plans. Auxiliary units would be expected to scout ahead of the main army. They often conducted most of the foraging duties as well as briefing Roman commanders on the most likely course of action the enemy would take.
As the fight unfolded, auxiliary units often conducted the first preliminary skirmishes to bloody the enemy, kept enemy cavalry off the legion’s flanks, pelted the enemy with arrows or slingshot rounds, and held broken ground or hilly areas that were difficult to maintain by legion formations. Lastly, if required, they sometimes stood shoulder-to-shoulder with legionnaires in the thick of the fighting. Number Thirty-Five Roman soldiers had to purchase their own equipment.
Before the advent of the military treasury, Roman citizens of poorer backgrounds were limited in the quality of equipment they could buy. However, as the Roman army began forgoing property requirements and looked solely at those who were citizens of the empire and fit enough, the military could pay for a legionnaire's equipment and deduct the costs from his salary. Number Thirty-Four The basic equipment of each legionary was tailored for uniformity across the legion.
Military sandals with hobnails and tunics could be privately purchased, but the same tailor or shoemaker often supplied a local legion with these pieces of equipment. For example, there was no standard tunic in the Roman army. The color and fabric type varied depending on where the unit was posted.
Those in Britain might have woolen tunics, while those in Syria would probably have lighter linen ones. But what about Roman armor? Number Thirty-Three Armor worn by legionnaires fell into two broad types.
There was the classic chain mail, which was preferred by the auxiliaries, and scale armor. Scale armor, known as "lobster-style" armor, was preferred and is often worn by legionnaires in movies and documentaries. The basic lobster-style armor was comprised of a series of steel plates fixed to figure-hugging iron bands attached to a leather frame.
Because of this, each legionary must be personally fitted for his armor, almost like a suit. Number Thirty-Two Roman helmets were designed with survivability in mind. While older bronze helmets of the Republican period might have had colorful plumes and other features meant to distinguish soldiers in battle, by the Imperial period, these iron helmets were perfectly designed to provide maximum protection.
Made primarily in Gaul, as Roman troops believed the locals there made better helmets than in Italy, the helmet had several distinct features to protect the wearer. The first of these was a strong crossbar above the forehead. The crossbar's intended purpose was to deflect downward blows meant to cleave a Roman soldier's head in half.
Along the sides of the wearers' heads were plates that stretched down the soldier's ears and cheeks. These were meant to deflect glancing blows from missile hazards like javelins and arrows. At the back of the helmet, the reverse brow extended back to protect the backside of the soldier's neck.
Should he fall down in battle or an enemy get behind him, it would be much more difficult to cleave off his head with this protecting him. Number Thirty-One Roman shields had an equal amount of thought put into them ensuring they’d maximize survivability. Besides armor, the legionnaire's shield protected against incoming sword blows and spear jabs.
The shield's base was created using a combination of three different layers of wood. Each layer brought different qualities to the shield, such as birch for flexibility and oak for strength. The layers were carefully glued together ensuring the wood grain was at right angles to the preceding layer.
Wooden beams provide additional support for the shield. With the base made, the outer part of the shield is covered with a metal plate. On top of this metal plate was either a piece of fabric or leather.
The painting that went on top of each shield varied from legion to legion, depending on the customs and traditions of that unit. Number Thirty Part of the reason why Rome’s armies were so dominant was because they possessed superior, standardized swords. Though several variations emerged over the centuries, the most common Roman sword was the gladius.
The standard gladius was 18 to 22 inches long and about two inches wide. It was made of high-quality steel and was primarily designed to be used as a stabbing weapon. Uniquely for a stabbing sword, the gladius did not have blood grooves that allowed air into wounds.
Instead, the sword would get stuck inside a hapless enemy, and only a firm twist and pull could release it for another blow. Combined with being a well-balanced sword and having a tight handle made out of bone or rawhide, the gladius was Rome's short-range killing machine. Number Twenty-Nine The Roman military created a specially designed, hand-held weapon to disable enemies during long-range infantry engagements.
Known as the pilum, this looked like a normal spear but varied in a ton of ways. The main shaft was made from about four feet of wood. A two-and-a-half-foot shaft of soft iron with a triangle tip was attached at the end of the shaft, with the iron shaft being much thinner than the wooden shaft of the pilum.
Sometimes, a lead weight was added near the wooden shaft's end. The purpose of the pilum was to be used as an expendable, long-range weapon that could not be thrown back at the legions. Once embedded in an enemy's shield, the weapon renders it useless until it's pulled out.
If a legionnaire missed and hit the ground, the pilum would shatter, or its metal shaft would bend in a way where it could not be used again. But if the weapon happened to hit a man, it was more than capable of going through armor and flesh. Number Twenty-Eight Besides carrying weapons and armor, Roman soldiers also carried a wide variety of tools and other kit for use in the field.
One of the most basic of these tools was the Roman pack. Under the reforms of Marius, Roman soldiers were expected to carry a good portion of their personal property. Doing so prevented huge baggage trains that both slowed the legion down and presented a tempting target to raiders.
The Roman soldier's pack was a simple four-foot-long pole with a crossbar. A soldier could hang his pack with a cloak, cooking utensils, shovel, water flask, and rations. Number Twenty-Seven Despite carrying a good amount of personal kit, the Roman army allowed one pack mule per squad of eight men to carry things like their tent and other camping equipment.
Number Twenty-Six Once a unit received a new recruit, he was put through a gradual stage of training by fellow legionnaires. The first of these stages was learning how to march. To start with, a squad of trainees was expected to march 20 miles in five hours and 40 miles in 12 hours.
Once they could achieve this without wearing any equipment, they donned a complete set of armor and weapons to repeat the tests with a full combat load. Number Twenty-Five The first enemy a Roman soldier faced was a wooden post. It’s here that new soldiers learn the art of swordplay.
Training sessions are almost always held outside in the rain, heat, or snow. Soldiers practiced their strikes against the wooden posts, sometimes with their own equipment but often with wooden swords and shields. These wooden arms are purposefully made to be heavier than their actual equipment to build strength in their troops.
Number Twenty-Four Roman soldiers used each other for pilum practice. Once new soldiers had learned the basics of swordsmanship; they went on to cover how to throw and receive a pilum. The training pilum was the same length and weight as a regular one, but instead of a long, steel shaft, the training pilum had a soft leather button covering the end.
New recruits were taught how to throw the pilum, with the receiving recruit expected to parry it with a shield or sword. Veteran soldiers sometimes took the opportunity to throw the training pilum at new recruits and see just how much they had learned. Number Twenty-Three To increase the agility of each man, every army barracks had a vaulting horse built on the grounds.
This fake horse was designed to be leapt over or on with soldiers in full armor and weapons. The vaulting horse increased agility and helped show any loose or pointy parts of a man's armor that needed correcting. Number Twenty-Two Besides practicing individual skills, a good part of both a recruit’s and veteran’s day was formation drills.
Because Roman legions built its strength around their ability to move as one in combat, these drills would be carried out routinely on the parade field and open country. Whether it was going from a line to a wedge or falling into a defensive circle, Roman soldiers would practice these skills stationary, then at a walking pace, and finally at a running pace. They also practiced changing formations, whether walking forwards, backward, or sideways.
Number Twenty-One One of the most brutal methods of punishment in the Roman army was decimation, but it was not a one-size-fits-all punishment. For example, decimation was famously used several times in the Republican period for units that broke off and ran. Every tenth man was either clubbed or beheaded by his fellow soldiers.
However, sometimes, entire units that fled the battlefield were slaughtered or sent on basically suicide missions to retake enemy ground. Number Twenty Though decimation was infamous throughout Roman history, the last recorded decimation occurred in the year 69 AD under Emperor Galba when he decimated a unit of converted rowers who refused to give up their lives as infantry and return to their ships as rowers. It should be noted that this is the last confirmed decimation, and the martyrdom of the Theban legion in the Third Century AD is still hotly debated among historians.
Number Nineteen Besides decimation, Roman military officers had a variety of minor punishments they could use for everyday offenses. The most common punishment was the castigato. The castigato was basically getting whacked with a wooden staff carried by a centurion however many times he wanted.
There was no set standard of strikes, and according to one story where legionnaires killed their centurions, one was famously nick-named "Give me another," which suggests some centurions would keep hitting their soldiers until they broke multiple staffs. Roman soldiers could also get their pay docked for losing equipment in battle or get assigned unfavorable duties like cleaning stables or latrines. Number Eighteen While decimation was the worst punishment of all, several others were just as bad.
Militiae mutatio was when a soldier lost his rank or long-service privileges, such as no longer being subjected to menial tasks. This could also be implemented on an entire unit. Soldiers who fall asleep on watch during garrison duty or hit an officer could be flogged in front of the entire unit.
Those who fell asleep on guard duty during campaigns would be beaten to death by their comrades. Units could also be punished. Units that fled in the face of the enemy may be forced to lose their meat and wheat rations.
Instead, they were forced to eat barley, which was given as animal fodder, and sometimes forced to pitch their tents outside the safety of the camp’s walls until the unit proved itself in battle again. Number Seventeen Roman enlisted men had a very distinct hierarchy of ranks, each with different rights and privileges. At the very bottom of the totem pole was the munifex.
A munifex is the newest recruited soldier who has not passed any training yet. These troops are the lowest of the low and routinely carry out all the tasks no one else wants to do, like cleaning latrines, stables, carrying water, or collecting wood. Once a soldier has been trained enough to earn his place, he is considered an Immunis.
Most soldiers spend their entire careers at this rank. The soldiers here are divided into two groups. Those who know or learn a special skill, such as carpentry, blacksmithing, plumbing, etc.
, will continue their service by carrying out these special skills. Those who do not learn a trade are still expected to carry out tasks like carrying water and cleaning latrines. Because of this, an immune must learn a skill he enjoys to avoid back breaking manual labor.
The most desired enlisted position would be the rank of the principalis. These positions were few in number and were some of the most vital in the century. For example, there was one position where the legionary carried out the watch rotations or another who would serve as second in command if the centurion fell in battle.
Number Sixteen Roman officer ranks were also structured based on a strict hierarchy of seniority. Centurions almost exclusively had risen through the ranks. They gained this position through either merit, bravery, or both.
These officers were the workhorses of the legion’s leadership, of which there were about sixty. Commanding each cohort is a tribune. When not in battle, the next higher officer became the camp prefect.
This person was always the most senior centurion who ran the day-to-day operations of the camp. Just above him would be the second-in-command. The tribunus laticlavus is the most senior tribune who would assume command if the legate, the legion's leader, cannot due to death, injury, or recall perform his duties.
Number Fifteen Because promotion to centurion comes due to merit or bravery, the legion’s legate must recommend promotion to this rank from the provincial governor. The emperor himself would then approve each appointment to the centurion. Number Fourteen For immunes, there were about twenty different roles they could pick from when choosing a job to get them out of menial labor.
Number Thirteen During the era of the Pax Romana, Roman camps were incredibly large and complex structures. Covering an area of about 55 acres, these massive complexes were made with four rectangular walls, a main road, legion headquarters, a hospital, block houses, workshops, and granaries. Number Twelve Inside a Roman camp, each century got its own barracks block.
Inside the housing block, each contubernium, or squad, got its own barracks block of about 100 square feet. Inside this block, eight men shared both a sleeping quarters of about 50 square feet and living quarters of 50 square feet. They could store their things, share meals, and gossip about the day in their living quarters.
Number Eleven While Roman soldiers could not be married when joining or marry while in the army, their commanders did not mind if they had families or girlfriends in the local area. Soldiers were allowed to leave often for liaisons with local women, and the children produced could become useful to the military later in life. Number Ten Roman soldiers did not spend their entire time living inside the camp.
In fact, they actually spent most of their time outside its walls performing other duties. Some examples of responsibilities that would take them outside the walls would be escorting Roman officials, performing construction work on roads or bridges, guarding villages against raids, performing convoy duty for merchants laden with valuable goods, or being sent to assist another legion currently on campaign. Number Nine To prevent any man from getting singled out for extra duties or standing guard, the daily duties of each soldier were logged down in legion records.
Number Eight Three times per month, the entire legion would leave the camp walls to participate in mock battles. The mock battle would begin with a forced march of ten miles preceded by a cavalry charge. Once the imaginary enemy had been broken, the legion would move forward using different formations, usually uphill, for extra exercise.
Number Seven If a legionary was not working outside the camp's walls, he was probably standing on sentry duty. Roman soldiers stood a ton of watch. Whether at the gates, on the ramparts, in the watchtowers, the granaries, the workshops, or following the camp prefect around, Roman soldiers built their day around when they would have to stand watch the next time.
Number Six Roman soldiers, while in garrison, ate two primary meals. The morning meal usually consisted of cold meat and bread. The evening meal was the more substantial meal of the day and usually consisted of larger portions of meat, cheese, bread, beer, and wine.
Pork was the most common meat legionnaires ate, but what was available depended on the local market. All rations given to troops were first inspected by their tribune to ensure local vendors were not bribing Roman soldiers to provide substandard food. Number Five Despite the amount of daily guard duty, training, manual labor, and out-of-area tasks a Roman soldier might be forced into, there still was a significant amount of downtime while in garrison.
A famous saying of the day was that a Roman soldier just needed a wash, wine, and a woman. Accordingly, many areas around military camps grew accustomed to this behavior with bars and brothels. However, to combat troops spending their money on such vices, legates and Roman leadership made an effort to provide entertainment that did not involve alcohol or prostitution.
Legion commanders often sponsored plays, comedy shows, and mimes to come visit the camps. These commanders could also sponsor legion wrestling tournaments and other competitions among unit personnel to build camaraderie and let off some steam. Number Four When Roman armies needed additional manpower for a campaign, the army commander could request from the emperor that vexillations be sent to him to strengthen the army or replace losses.
These units were supposed to be detachments of cohorts from garrison units to serve in faraway places. While these cohorts were supposed to be made of the best men available since they were going to war, often times, centurions used this as an opportunity to rid themselves of their troublemakers, sometimes permanently. Number Three Before an army that had been in garrison for a while left on a campaign, the legate would frequently turn the entire command out and force them to sleep in tents for several weeks before marching.
Doing so allowed troops to get used to living outside, see what was missing from their supplies, and how to set up a field camp properly before moving out. Number Two One of the biggest problems for a Roman army while on campaign was not when and where to meet the enemy but food. Roman legions had extended supply chains to keep their legions fed.
However, should these chains get interrupted due to attacks, Roman soldiers carried an average of a week's worth of food on their person. The main diet while on campaign consisted of grain baked into simple cakes or cattle, which followed a legion in its march and would be slaughtered daily. Foraging was also another way of procuring food.
In fact, foraging for food was expected to be the main way to supply various food to troops in the field. It’s one of the main reasons the Romans preferred to campaign in the summer and fall so they could send their auxiliary troops to bring back grain, vegetables, sheep, cattle, and pigs to feed their armies. Number One Every day while on campaign, the average legion consumes 18,000 pounds of grain, 12,000 gallons of water, and 40,000 pounds of forage for its pack animals.
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