Brilliance and brutality intellect and Intrigue Christianity and Carnage the Byzantine Empire was a beacon of light with a dark side they call themselves Romanos those who continued the traditions of the Roman Empire led by rulers who exercised absolute power and architects who pushed Beyond Rome's engineering Marvels the byzantines constructed the ancient world's longest Aqueduct virtually Invincible City walls and a colossal domed Cathedral that defied the laws of nature a church of unprecedented proportions grew up magically but carrying on the Roman Legacy came with a price he blinded 14 000 men leaving every hundredth man with one eye the Byzantine Empire was the dominant civilization during the Dark Ages but after its engineering Feats would betray them as an ancient light was extinguished in the glare of Modern Warfare foreign [Music] hi I'm Peter Weller Byzantium was an ancient Greek city-state founded around 600 BC named after its king bazantis they settled here because of this thin strip of water that connected Asia to Europe and the Black Sea to eventually the Mediterranean the strip of water is called the Strait of Bosphorus meaning bold track from ancient mythology Byzantine today means scheming are old or devious but during its 1100 years the Byzantine Empire would not only be the Savior to the Western world's profound Heritage of Law and literature but it would put Christianity on The Fast Track and along the way give us the Artisans and Builders and craftsmen who would eventually light up the Renaissance right into the 21st century and all of this what happened under the auspices of a single Emperor named Constantine who of all of the fakers in charlatans that history has coughed up to steal the moniker the great Constantine really deserved it November 8th 324 A. D after two decades of bloody Civil War the emperor Constantine has finally seized sole control of the entire Roman Empire he is a leader with a vision a brilliant strategist and a Man Without Limits he became emperor really through his own Wiles he is ruthless in the way he assumes power Constantine the Great was one of those rulers that changed the world he inherited a Roman Empire which had been divided into two parts Constantine would reunite the vast Empire ruling over its Western and Eastern halves and politician and he was faced with the problem of both administer administering and of managing this enormous Realm just six weeks after ascending to the throne Constantine Journeys to the edge of the Empire to a remote spot in modern day Turkey Constantine took a spear and traced the outline of the city in the dirt his Entourage was somewhat amazed at the extent to which he intended to build the city he is said to have commented I will go as far as he until he who leads me stops that line would become the boundary of the Empire's great new capital Nova Roma New Rome and from that sketch would rise a glittering City in the center of a great new Empire the city would come to be known as constantinopolis Constantine City Constantine effectively shifts the center of the Roman Empire and founds a new center he was moving away from Rome with its old rivalries political infighting vested interests and so forth to create something quite new which he could mold Constantine's vision for his new city would be built upon the engineering techniques perfected during the Roman Empire there was a grand campaign of construction of building forums marketplaces to build the kind of buildings that ancient Rome had but Constantine's rule would be marked by one major distinction unlike any previous emperor he would harness the power of another ruler his name was Jesus Christ [Music] ianity is really on the rise [Music] there is a large Christian presence in the Empire and simply recognizing this presence made a good deal of political sense Constantinople was founded in effect as a Christian Empire an Orthodox Christianity was fundamental to its existence [Music] now we have to remember that even though Constantine was venerated by Christianity he's still an emperor in other words a dictator who's not only killed his son his stepson but also his second wife all on the same trip to Italy so if the boy wants a city he's going to get a city and not take no for an answer problem is how do you attract people to a Dusty town in the Hinterlands called Byzantium well first of all you might want to rename it after yourself and second of all in the style of all Roman emperors rebuild it if Constantine could rise out of the Grave today and see the success story of Istanbul population 12 million 2 million tourists a year he'd probably faint because in 337 A. D when he dies not only is the city half done but he's got a big problem bulging population one little provincial aqueduct in a city surrounded by sea so there's water water everywhere but not a drop to drink by the mid 4th Century the city was dying of thirst Constantine's successors would have to develop a water supply far larger than Rome's to keep the city alive the system they built would be one of the greatest engineering achievements of the ancient world there were no local Water Resources within the city worlds of Constantinople and hence water had to be brought from a much greater distance than anywhere else in the classical world and in the Mediterranean the task fell to an ambitious Emperor named Valance who reigned from 364 to 378 A.
D he would carry out an audacious plan to engineer the world's longest Aqueduct system completed it would transport spring water a staggering 400 miles equal in length to all of the Roman Empire's earlier aqueducts combined the main line would begin 150 miles west of Constantinople deep in the Hinterlands of Thrace Byzantine Engineers would first have to find a way to maintain a consistent downward slope to kill water moving there are tunnels underground there are channels that go along the surface and there are where necessary these great Aqueduct Bridges between the 4th and 6th centuries the byzantines built 60 Aqueduct Bridges the most impressive would rise nearly 90 feet today it's known as the kershun lugerme aqueduct Bridge Builders first constructed giant Stone Piers or supports once the piers were raised Masons worked on massive arches wooden forms held the stones of each arch in place until the Keystone could be positioned and the arch completed framework was then built on the next tier and the process repeated like the Romans Byzantine Masons adorned their Bridges with religious carvings but unlike the Romans the byzantines chose Christian not Pagan symbols more than 80 miles away another Aqueduct bridge this one even larger would Channel water into the heart of Constantinople now turkey's largest city Istanbul I'm standing on top of the giant Aqueduct Bridge built for the ancient city of Constantinople under the emperor Valens what is that name ring power to you Valens now the entire Aqueduct span is 150 miles but just this section between two hills in Constantinople is 11 football fields long and boy did it take care of the city's water problem but it not only took care of the water problem just as we've seen in all of the empires if you want to make a political statement with a public work you build it big however getting the water to Constantinople was only half the battle Once In The City the water had to be stored but vacant land was scarce Byzantine Engineers answered the challenge by building an underground storage system more elaborate than anything else in the ancient world over time they would construct more than 150 Subterranean tanks the largest would be here the Basilica cistern it would take 336 columns to support its 25 foot tall ceiling at 153 yards long and 77 yards wide the Basilica cistern could hold enough water to fill 27 Olympic-sized swimming pools Engineers built the underground storage tanks in troughs between the city's Hills an ingenious solution that not only made use of the Low Land but also provided a flat building surface on top cisterns enabled the city to be provided continuously by water even in the summer when it wouldn't rain that much and they'd be nearly a trickle coming down from the aqueduct with its vast underground water storage system constantinople's population swelled to an extraordinary size for an ancient city by the end of the fifth century the population of Constantinople was approaching the half million Mark no other city in Western Europe came even close it was a city that was legendary even for people who had never set foot in it but far away on the steps of Mongolia a tidal wave is about to engulf Europe The Surge would be led by a man named Attila and his army would soon be at the gates of Constantinople it will take a brilliant feat of military engineering the greatest defense system of antiquity to save the city [Music] Nicholas the original Santa Claus was a bishop in the Byzantine Empire during the 4th Century he was known for Secret gift giving thank you 410 A. D Rome has fallen to Germanic tribes called Visigoths Roman citizens fled Eastward to the safe haven of Constantinople but it was only a matter of time before a Savage horde hell-bent on destruction would come knocking they were called the Huns now as the West will decline the East and Constantinople will become a Boom Town only burn the saddle is the Richer Constantinople gets the more those marauding Northern tribes who have been attacking Italy start to look at Constantinople and go hmm Constantine the Great had put the Byzantine Empire on the map now the Hun sought to wipe it off the descriptions of them in contemporary texts which treat them as outlandish horrible ugly beastly people make it very clear that ordinary people were absolutely terrified of the Huns but the Bison teens had a plan in mind to keep out the Huns perched on the tip of a peninsula Constantinople had strategic advantages over the old capital Rome which stood unprotected and exposed to keep out its enemies Constantinople would need formidable defenses along its vulnerable Western approach the solution the strongest most sophisticated system of City walls ever built today they are known as the theodosian walls ironically credit for the ancient world's greatest feat of military engineering goes to an emperor who is a mere child when the walls were conceived theodosius II [Music] construction on constantinople's defenses began when theodosius was just 12 years old it was his prefect anthemius who deserves the real credit for masterminding the walls Romans had been building walls for hundreds of years but Byzantine Engineers faced an even greater challenge Constantinople sat on a fault and earthquakes were a constant problem but how to build something that would withstand a tremor the answer Limestone mortar in the west Romans used concrete which created a mortar of stone-like hardness that is rigid once it's set lime mortar has a little bit of give to it so that it will allow the buildings to settle without significant breakage the byzantines ingenious design used Limestone mortar alternated with bands of brick and stone first Square stone walls were laid and filled in with brick rubble and mortar to bind the layers of stone and mortared Rubble together bands of brick five courses thick were laid throughout the width of the walls hidden advantage of that also is that it provides a certain flexibility against minor Earth Tremors because the addition of the brick breaks up the solid face of the wall and allows the wall to absorb shock without shattering this layer technique the byzantines built a massive barrier more than 30 feet tall and as much as 16 and a half feet thick it would have 96 giant Towers reaching Heights of 60 feet or more but would it be enough to hold off the Huns General William Tecumseh Sherman set about the Comanche Indians the best equestrians of Latter years that they'd been on a horse for so long it looked like they didn't know how to walk well the Huns were the granddaddies of the Comanche they lived breathed and died by the horse they developed the Stirrup which allowed them to stand up in the saddle and sling arrows and swords with a deadly accuracy they rode from China to India to Europe plundering and terrorizing feasting on raw meat which they tenderized between their thighs as they rode dressed in the skins of field mice which they wore until those skins rotted off let me put it this way Attila and the Huns gave a new meaning to the word Fierce he was very good at what he did he was very good at raping and pillaging and breaking down the defenses of the Roman Empire in the first seven years of his Reign much of Europe fell to Attila and his Hans but despite repeated attempts Attila had yet to capture Constantinople he would get a Little Help from Mother Nature in 447 A. D a series of catastrophic earthquakes rocked the city far worse than anything Byzantine Engineers had anticipated it was the opportunity Attila had been waiting for 57 Towers were leveled by the Tremors leaving the city unprotected attila's Army was once more on the March threatening Constantinople from the rubble Emperor theodosius rallied constantinople's people to help not only rebuild the defenses but to make them even more formidable than before but with the Han Army fast approaching thousands of citizens had only weeks to repair walls that had taken years to build but the byzantines would take no chances the new and improved theodosian walls would now incorporate a triple line of defense enormous amount of planning a lot of engineering skill for its period it was the most complex and expensive defensive system in the world outside of China the first hurdle a giant moat beyond that an outer Terrace next a brand new outer wall 10 feet tall and six and a half feet thick the final and by far the most impressive line of defense would be the original massive inner wall completely rebuilt and anchored by its 96 giant Towers each Tower is its own individual little castle so to conquer the walls of the city it would mean penetrating the moat the outer walls the inner wall three lines of defense and then conquering all of these individual castles one by one it's an extremely clever system all Liang goes all the possibilities for the technology of the time are covered the work was completed just in time attila's Scouts crested a hill only to see the hardcore Fortress of Constantinople Attila would never breach the byzantines capital city the city was Secure because of its walls there are any number of times in the history of the Byzantine Empire where attackers get as far as the walls of the city but they can go no further for a thousand years the Byzantine Empire would be saved by its City walls from the Huns and Arabs to the Russians and Turks the survival of Constantinople for as long as it did survive was very much due to the fact that it was a walled city which was almost impregnable with the completion of its land barrier Byzantine Engineers next sought to protect the city from waterborne threats their solution was ingenious and highly effective a giant chain one of the biggest ever built Byzantine blacksmiths first forged a massive iron chain roughly five football fields in length an estimated 750 links each measured two feet the lynx would float on wooden logs the Byzantine Navy could drag the chain across the Golden Horn cutting off the harbor finally protected from its enemies Constantinople cashed in the walls of Constantinople were so thick and so large and so successful because they had to be Constantinople was extremely rich and it's like a bank with a very significant Vault it was the richest city in the world nearly all the world's most important trade routes intersected at the city wealth from as far away as Egypt China and Russia all passed through the Byzantine capital on its way to the West but with money pouring into the Empire enemies began to storm the countryside looking for the spoils the capital may have been bulging with success but the empire was steadily shrinking as the Frontiers fell one after another to marauding tribes by the death of theodosius II in 450 A.
D the Mediterranean Sea which had once been like Rome's private Lake now looked like a huge ocean against which the empire was nothing more than a beach resort Reviving Constantine's Rome would be the single Obsession of a very controversial Emperor who would marry a very Dynamic woman who possessed very special skills [Music] theodosius II nearly bankrupted the Empire trying to buy off Attila he paid the Huns as much as 2100 pounds of gold a year throughout the 5th Century the Western Roman Empire had been steadily disintegrating under the Iron Fist of barbaric tribes in 476 the last Roman emperor abdicated the throne to many the Roman Empire had finally Fallen but did it really did it really fall because at the same time here in Constantinople the Eastern Empire is thriving it's prospering and in 527 A. D an emperor named Justinian comes to the throne who's not only completely committed to re-codifying all of Roman law he's bent on reconquering Constantine's Empire Justinian the first ruled during the Byzantine Empire's Golden Age yet ironically the man who lusted after the glory of ancient Rome was an outsider well the emperor Justinian was born a peasant in what is now Northern Yugoslavia and he came with his uncle Justin to Constantinople to seek their fortunes his 40-year Reign would be marked by intellectual Brilliance and unparalleled work ethic and unbridled ruthlessness two years before ascending to the throne Justinian married a beautiful strong-willed woman named Theodora but there was just one problem the Adora was a former burlesque dancer so to take her checkered past out of the equation Justinian simply promoted her the day he was crowned Emperor he named Theodora as his co-empress her Ascension to power sent shock waves through the Byzantine aristocracy she was supposedly a prostitute hanging out around the Hippodrome involved in things like bear dancing not exactly sure what happens in Bear dancing but devil and it was not such a great thing and she had a very active sex life together Justinian and Theodora would rule the Empire as equals she must have been highly intelligent and she must have been very Wily very successful at court politics Justinian quickly realized that his legacy would be built on restoring the bygone Glory of ancient Rome he began by reclaiming western territories that had been lost over the years back home in Constantinople Justinian went on a construction spree bad news is to pay for this building he went on a ballistic campaign of Taxation which was just as popular then as it probably would have been now along with the taxes he tries to control or stamp out any form of pagan celebration the study of the ancient philosophers at Athens gambling prostitution adultery homosexuality any Christian that doesn't see it his way and the Jews he didn't have a lot of fans but so what he's an emperor he's not listening to approval ratings you know what he should have as Justinian tightened his grip on the people the city's resentment turned to rage and unlike other civilizations where the masses had no place to voice their anger the byzantines had their hippodrome Center of constantinople's public life conceived as a stadium for Chariot racing it could hold as many as one hundred thousand people construction of the Hippodrome had taken place over centuries it was a gigantic task incorporating every known building technique shaped like an enormous you and modeled after Rome's renowned circus Maximus constantinople's Hippodrome was nearly a third of a mile long and wider than a modern-day football field but the side its Architects had chosen sloped severely to the South and there they built vaulted substructures as common in ancient Rome vaulted substructures to create a level platform Freeman and Masons were brought in from around the Mediterranean their first task to build the substructure's arched wall four stories tall The Arches created a gallery for shops and cafes above the substructure two tiers of columns and more than 30 Stone rows surrounded the sand covered racing track like all Byzantine emperors before him Justinian sat in an imperial box called the cathisma giving the byzantines a rare glimpse of their ruler it was a combination of sports Stadium public spectacle Stadium Imperial propaganda Pulpit all those things it could seat huge numbers of people bets were wagered by fans of the various teams the blues greens Reds and whites they were like political factions in our world and so disputes over soccer results as today are disputes over chariot races could take on a significant political dimension in Byzantium the Hippodrome was one of the architectural glories of Constantinople but in 532 A. D it would also become the site of one of the most brutal acts of an emperor against his people one day in early January Justinian by now wildly unpopular thanks to his harsh policies and heavy taxes appeared before a raucous crowd at the Hippodrome all of a sudden they came together and they came together against the emperor the ceremonial political center of the empire was right there and you had tens of thousands of people opposed to the emperor right at the core of the Empire the blues and the greens weren't like the Jets and the sharks there were factions that ran all the way from street thugs right up the political animal to the aristocracy so when thousands and thousands of both blues and greens stormed the Hippodrome screaming neat win win against these horrible taxes it would have been like both Republicans and Democrats storming the Super Bowl screaming about the same thing which may not be a bad idea the sad news is it turned into a riot and the riot turned into Mayhem and a week later a third of the city lay in ashes Justinian was so scared he was about to pack his bags and split but thank goodness for a strong woman he was all prepared to get on the ship and clear off to the Asian side of the Bosphorus but the empress Theodore who started life as an actress stroke prostitute said I've got this far I'm not giving up now you know stay in fight so he did theodoro's words convinced Justinian and his response would be calculated and horrifying he dispatched his generals to gather a force and March to the Hippodrome the conclusion of the Nikkei Riot is one of these events of biblical proportion Justinian calls the rebels to meet in the Hippodrome suggesting that he may compromise with them but in fact he gets them into the Hippodrome closes the gates and they are massacred by the Imperial troops within minutes all the rebels within its walls had been systematically slaughtered the center of constantinople's public life had become The Killing Grounds for an estimated thirty thousand people he was unapproachable and gentle man who could with a quiet voice order the murder of thousands of people the capital lay in Ruins but in the ashes Justinian spied opportunity now he would re-engineer an everlasting Legacy in the name of absolute power his own [Music] from the ruins of Constantinople would rise one of the world's most magnificent churches that would become the center for a new religion and a monument to Byzantine engineering Legend says that a Byzantine princess who married an Italian nobleman in the 11th century introduced the table Fork to Europe 532 A.
D Emperor Justinian has just survived the Nika riots but the heart of the Byzantine Empire lay in Ruins re-energized Justinian would reassert his power and rebuild the capital in the name of God and himself what Justinian did after his Imperial Army put down the riot was to immediately begin to refurbish the city and and Proclaim to the citizens that he was in control and that everything was right in the Roman Empire now we remember Justinian not because he was ruthless but we remember the period of Justinian because he has left us such an incredible architectural Legacy Justinian's first priority was to rebuild the city's main Cathedral called The Church of Holy wisdom we know it today as the Aya Sophia Justinian appointed two Byzantine Architects isadoras and anthemius to design the church both were professors of mathematics and physics skilled in theory but with no real construction experience The Architects of high Sofia were not the standard architects of the day they For Better or Worse were professors we professors sometimes don't have the most sound practical knowledge but the far-sighted Justinian gave them a free hand with only two demands build it as quickly as possible and make it unlike anything else on Earth construction began a scant six weeks after the Nika riots it took years to put together building teams to bring together all of the building materials that were needed for a great project in the Empire Justinian did it practically instantly usadoris and anthemius's design for the cathedral was revolutionary in concept an unprecedented in scale they set out to create the largest dome ever built 100 feet across they began by using an architectural device first attempted by the Romans but never fully achieved it was called the pendentive First Step construct four massive arches on which the Dome would rest next the pendentives rounded triangles that connect the dome's circular base to the square base below and distribute its weight evenly among the four arches by adding smaller semi-domes an even larger area would be created using pendentives Justinian's Architects were able to construct a gigantic Dome that appears to hover in midair the Dome Rises 184 feet 30 feet taller than the Statue of Liberty foreign over which the Dome hung would be a massive open space measuring 229 feet by 245 feet there were a hundred teams of workmen each with 100 men with half of them working on the north side of the building half of them working on the south side of the building and competing to create the great Building a Church of unprecedented proportions grew up magically almost magically faster than any kind of construction at that time on that scale Aya Sophia was dedicated in 537 A. D less than six years after the first Stones were laid Justinian was very proud of his church as he should be it was a great idea it was a great conceptual plan the implementation of that plan the actual structure was risky a more experienced or pragmatic Builder would have seen that trying to build a dome of this size with the materials given in a short amount of time would have been dicey at best before the construction was even finished the four Piers hold up the Arches started to buckle and collapse 20 years later an earthquake happens boom whole Dome comes in now isadores the younger the nephew of the original isadors that built it addressed the flaws in the dome had to reconstruct it one of the flaws most important one is that he raised the pitch of the Dome because more vertical load of a higher Dome will drive the weight into the ground which is good support a short squatty Dome with horizontal load Drve the weight sideways and Cub Boom the Dome Falls in so isadores raises the Dome 21 feet boom and voila you got the Dome you see today Aya Sophia was known for more than just its novel design even the columns were elaborately adorned with Monograms of the emperor and his Empress we are never allowed to forget that this is the great achievement of Justinian and Theodora Emperor Justinian had created a centerpiece for Christianity and further solidified Constantinople as the capital of the Christian world he got an architect that was going to make a grand statement and a grand statement was made the largest church in christotum the greatest Dome space in the world until the Renaissance he got a building that dwarfed any of the great baths of Ancient Rome or any of the great temples of the ancient world by the end of his Reign the Byzantine Empire had grown to its greatest size encompassing Syria and Palestine Asia Minor Italy Greece and Southward throughout North Africa and Egypt but the Byzantine people would pay the price of expansion justinians near constant military campaigning combined with his Zeal to rebuild Constantinople virtually bankrupted the Byzantine Empire the Empire really never recovers from the megalomania of Justinian it's perhaps fitting that the Dome of Hagia Sophia collapses it's as if Justinian as he is over extending the political boundaries of the Empire he's off also over extending the architecture as well for three centuries after Justinian's death a series of Emperors would rule over a shrinking Empire but through the chaos Constantinople stood secure and in the 10th Century the byzantines would once again rise in a blaze of military Glory led into battle with fearsomely engineered weapons and by the finest military mind ever to wear the crown according to Legend Constantinople boasted a collection of sacred Christian relics including the True Cross and John the Baptist's head the year is 1000 A. D the end of the first Millennium of the Common Era the force of Europe Now lies in the north with France and Germany and the Holy Roman Empire while here in Constantinople in the East the byzantines have survived Wars with Visigoths Persians avars and Arabs and weathered a very disheartening period in the 700s called iconoclasm where they have smashed most of their art but the byzantines are on the rebound now and by 1014 they are poised to reconquer the entire Balkan Peninsula from the Danube River all the way to Greece yeah the man at the Helm of the byzantine's comeback was basil II a man of the people basil was the most brilliant military mind the byzantines ever produced he was a emperor that did not sit back and enjoy the luxuries of the palace he went out campaigning every season leading the Byzantine armies against the foes he was seen to be a soldier's Emperor but there's no doubt he ranks as a highly competent variable very intelligent very versatile military leader as well as a good ruler Basil's greatest enemy was our Samuel who ruled Bulgaria a Slavic Kingdom vying for control of the Balkan Peninsula in 986 a decade into his Reign basil suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of Samuel's Army the first time he marched North he was only 18 I think he might have been a bit younger and he walked he walked into an ambush basically humiliated basil swore revenge on the Bulgarian nation that Revenge would take a quarter Century to unfold in the meantime his defeat emboldened his Byzantine rivals after crushing a series of revolts within his Empire basil turned his attentions outward to restoring lost Imperial lands determined to regain byzantine's Glory he had ordered his Engineers to design a new model of a deadly Siege weapon trebuchet the trebuchet's design was based on simple principles using ropes operators cocked a wooden arm outfitted with a sling and stone the front and sides of the wooden frame were covered in fresh animal skins to protect it from flaming arrows you'd have your axle and your pivoting sling because of the disparity between the short end on one side of the axle and the long end on the other you'd maximize the Velocity in the swing so you could throw substantial weights considerable distances but basil II did nothing by half measures the trebuchet his Engineers designed could hurl Stones weighing more than 400 pounds and took a staggering Force to operate 400 men with the world's finest troops and largest Siege craft the Byzantine Army was Unstoppable and after years on the battlefield basil had developed a Creed of ferocity and discipline among his men he has a reputation being harsh but fair and of course if the soldiers believe in their leader they'll find better more effectively he formatted anyone from breaking ranks and lectured them on a need for Readiness at all times his Force could move with lightning speed across all types of terrain finally in the year 1001 basil decided it was time to head back to Bulgaria and clean up unfinished business he then turns his attention back to Bulgaria and spends the next 15 years basically solidly campaigning year on year on year which gradually destroying the bulgar's infrastructure ravaging the countryside destroying the economy Tsar Samuel would soon realize the scope of Basil's Fury Samuel had been the only man to beat basil and battle and for that distinction he would pay dearly on July 29th in the year 1014 basil launched a surprise attack Conquering the Bulgarian Army capturing 14 000 men his revenge would be brutal [Music] find it all of them leaving every 100th man with one eye to lead the rest back to Bulgaria when Samuel saw his ragged and mutilated Army he collapsed and two days later he died it's one thing to execute all of these people it's another thing to send them back to the country where their countrymen in some ways have to take care of all these people so they become a kind of permanent liability to the society the cruel Victory earned the emperor control of the Balkans and the moniker basil the bulgar Slayer in 1025 A.
