The Wars and Crises that Caused WW1 (Full Documentary)

The origins of the first world war are still the cause of lively debate amongst historians more than 100 years after the assassination of the heir to the Austrohungarian throne in June 1914. The complex July crisis that followed the deaths of Kfedinand and Sophie Hoteek led to a generalized great power war that shaped the 20th century. But this crisis can also be seen in the broader context of the so-called long fuse. Long-term causes that made war more likely in post-Napoleonic Europe. In the decades before the First World War broke out in 1914, industrialization led to huge

increases in wealth and urbanization, but also created stark inequalities in society. Ruling groups needed to manage the resulting tensions. So, encouraging nationalism and pride and imperial expansion helped to channel the anger and energy of the popular classes elsewhere. But this caused Problems abroad. Britain, France, and Russia had wellestablished empires by the late 1800s when a new player arrived on the scene. Germany became a unified state in 1871 and eventually began to create its own overseas empire and bluewater navy to appease its growing commercial class and to offset the powerful influence of social democratic parties at

home. Germany's ambitions for its quote place in the sun caused a spike in tensions between the great Powers who were already in competition with each other. Great power rivalries became part of popular culture with jingoistic press, militaristic education in schools and everything from children's toys and thriller novels and even movies focusing on feats of arms or dangerous potential enemies. One of the flash points of imperial competition since the 1870s was Africa, and the so-called scramble for Africa led to a crisis between future allies in 1898. The great powers had come to a general agreement about

the rules of imperial expansion in Africa. If a power couldn't effectively control a region that it wanted to colonize, other powers could contest its claim. And from the mid 1880s, Britain faced an Islamist and anti-Egyptian uprising in the Sudan known as the Modest War. Given the instability in Sudan, the French hoped they could gain territory along the Nile In the 1890s. So, they sent an expedition which after a 14-month journey reached the abandoned Egyptian fort of Foda in July 1898. Soon after the British and the Egyptians defeated the modests and sent a flotilla of gunboats

under Herbert Kiter up the Nile. He presented French officer Jean Baptiste Marshan with a letter from Paris backing down. France was divided by the DFU affair about alleged German spying and did not want conflict with Britain. As author Victor Enri put it, Germany keeps slapping us in the face. Let's not offer our cheek to England. By early November, the French left Fashoda and the crisis was over. Though French nationalists felt humiliated, Foda made clear that the 19th century international order was weakening and the next crisis might just be around the corner. Despite the tensions, the

great powers could still cooperate in a crisis as long as they had common interests. Nearly all the powers including Russia and the United States worked together to defeat the Chinese boxer movement and theQing government in 1900 and European navies blockaded Venezuela in 19023 to force it to repay loans and property damage. Most of the powers though criticized Britain for its war in South Africa. In the late 19th century conflict was brewing in southern Africa. The Dutch had colonized the region from back in the mid7th century and the Settlers arrived in what became the Cape Colony.

They called themselves Africanos and spoke their own dialect of Dutch known as Africans, but they were often simply known as Bo, the Dutch word for farmer. Most of these settlers farmed lands that they seized from the local native population, many of whom the Africaners then enslaved. In 1806, Britain captured Cape Town during the Napoleonic Wars and kept permanent control of the Cape Colony after 1815. But problems between the British administration and the Boore population soon emerged over language, cultural outlook, and legal systems. The tipping point came when Britain outlawed slavery in 1834. This enraged the

Boers who relied on slave labor to work their farms. Between 1835 and 1840, the Boers migrated out of British territory in what they called the Great Trek to find new independent homelands in eastern South Africa. There They founded two new Boore republics, the Orange Free State and the South African Republic or Transfal. The new Boore states maintained some forms of slavery and expropriated their land from native Africans. But the British Boore struggle continued. The British Empire slowly expanded its control of South Africa by taking over more native African territories and by the 1840s it shared

a border with the Boore republics. Frequent border skirmishes Blew up into the first Boore war of 1880 1881. The Boers won the war and forced the British government to formally acknowledge Boore independence. And then came the transfoul gold rush. Prospectors discovered enormous gold deposits between 1884 and 1886. Immigrants from all over the British Empire flooded to South Africa to seek their fortune. And the newfound mineral wealth of Transfal drew the interest of British statesmen and businessmen. Foremost among these was Cape Colony Prime Minister and mining magnate Ceil Roads who led the campaign to bring the

Boore republics under British rule to secure their natural resources for the empire. But his scheme to overthrow the Boore governments using a force of mercenaries in the Jameson raid of 1895 ended in fiasco and alerted the Boers to the threat of British annexation. Despite the failure of the Jameson raid, Britain relentlessly pressured the Boore Republics to make territorial and legal concessions. By 1899, British troops were massing in their colony of Natal and the Boers feared an invasion was imminent. So rather than await the inevitable, the Boers decided to strike first. And on October 11th, 1899,

the second Boore war began. So the Boore's desire for independence and British imperial expansion had come to a head with the outbreak of war in 1899. So let's take a look at the fighting forces that each side brought to the battlefield. The Boes did not possess a standing army and instead relied on a militia system. In times of war, the government would muster all able-bodied men between the ages of 16 and 60. Citizens were expected to arrive with their own rifle and horse, but the government also bought and distributed thousands of German Ma rifles at

the start of the war. The Boers had no Formal military training, but they were formidable fighters noted for their excellent marksmanship. In peace time, Boore citizens developed their skill by hunting game and through target shooting competitions, a practice noted by American journalist Howard Hiligus. Target shooting was the chief of amusement in Transfal. Demand for rifle ammunition was constant and firing at marks may almost be said to have taken the place occupied by billiards in Europe. Every boar fighter was a mounted rifleman. They could move quickly and seize key terrain before dismounting and delivering a hail

of accurate rifle fire. Decades later, Winston Churchill named Britain's special forces after the Africana word for military unit, Commando. The riflemen were backed by a small professional artillery branch, which deployed a mixture of modern French and German guns, including four 155mm Ko guns, which the British nicknamed Long Tong. The Boes were motivated, well-armed, and determined to defend their independence. They had about 60,000 men available to fight, but their weakness was their ability to sustain a long war. The Boers relied on military imports from Europe. Their small population meant that they could not afford a war

of attrition, and they feared an African uprising or attack from the Zulu Kingdom. They had to Strike fast and win a clear victory. The British army was immensely experienced in colonial warfare and with 250,000 troops, it could field more men than the Africconers. One of them, in fact, would be my great-grandfather. The Second Bore War would be the 226th out of 230 wars fought during the reign of Queen Victoria. The British won nearly all these conflicts thanks to the army's advantages in discipline and Technology and tactics based on close formations and crushing fire. But the

army had very little experience of facing modern firepower since the colonial enemies it had defeated fielded little more than a handful of secondhand rifles. Imperial troops would face an unpleasant surprise under bore rifle and artillery fire. Still the British army in South Africa was confident and seemed to have forgotten its defeat at the hands of the Boers in 188081. British military thinkers reckon victory would be swift and decisive against a fragile boar force lacking in discipline. Native black Africans also played a role in the war. Officially, both sides declared that the conflict was a quote

white man's war and that the neutrality of black Africans would be respected. In reality, black Africans performed a variety of roles for both belligerents. The Boores used African forced labor to provide transport and Dig trenches, while the British hired thousands of Africans for logistic work, as well as native scouts and trackers, some of whom fought in uniform. The Boore militias and the British army were set to clash. And when war broke out in October 1899, the Boers tried to make the most of their window of opportunity. At the start of the war, the Boers outnumbered

British forces in South Africa 40,000 to 20,000. Since the British were sure to send reinforcements, the Boore plan emphasized speed and aggression. They would sweep into South Africa and crush the British garrisons before fresh troops arrived from the United Kingdom. The Boore invasion had four main axes. In the west, boar forces besieged the railway town of Mafiking to prevent British forces advancing from the direction of Bichuana land. In the southwest, the boores surrounded the Diamond mining center of Kimberly. And in the south, Boore forces advanced into the Cape Midland regent to disrupt British rail transport.

The main Boore offensive though drove into Natal. The British had most of their army here, some 15,000 men, and had planned to use the colony as a base to invade Boore territory until the Boers beat them to it. But British forces were poorly deployed, and Lieutenant General William Penn Simon's 4,000 strong detachment Bore the brunt of the Boore attack. On October 20th, 1899, the first pitch battle of the war took place as the Boers got their artillery onto Talana Hill and bombarded Simon's camp below. The British were surprised, but they quickly rallied and launched an

assault that drove the Boers from the high ground. The attack was a costly success. Simons was mortally wounded, and 10% of his force became casualties. The nature of the fighting surprised even veteran British officers like Captain Nugent of the First King's Royal Rifle Corps. The ground in front of me was literally rising in dust from the bullets, and the den echoing between the hill and the wood below, and among the rocks from the incessant fire of the mousers, seemed to blend with every other sound into a long, drawn out, hideous roar. I looked round over

my shoulder. The whole ground we had already covered was strewn with bodies. At that moment, I was hit Through the knee. The actual shock was as if someone had hit me with their whole strength with a club. I spun round and fell, my pistol flying one way and helmet another. Despite the victory at Kana Hill, the British were in danger. Mobile Boore columns threatened to surround the isolated force which endured a harrowing retreat to join the main British garrison at Ladymith. British forces moved north to clear the retreat route. And on October 21st, a British

column struck advancing boores at the battle of Alan's Lton. A skillful British combined arms attack drove the boores from their positions before British cavalry swept in from the flank and completed the route. Yet the bore advance into Natal continued. By the end of October, British commander George White had two options. He could withdraw to the south and wait for reinforcements from Britain. This would preserve his army, But would cause political problems if public opinion saw it as too passive. Or he could attack the Boores and try for a decisive victory to defeat the invasion. This

might turn the tide of the war, but it also ran the risk of a disastrous defeat. White chose to gamble on October 30th. He threw his forces into action at the Battle of Lady Smith, but British attacks were badly coordinated and the Boers won a significant victory. White retreated to Lady Smith and the Boers Laid siege to the town. The opening weeks of the war had been a success story for the Boers. They had defeated Britain's main army in South Africa and trapped it in Ladymith. If the town were to fall, the Boers might just

win the war. In November 1899, a fresh British army was on its way to help relieve besieged Imperial troops in Ladymith. Its 45,000 men had left the UK at the start of the war under the command of General Redver Buller. Buller had Planned to link up with White's force and invade the Boore republics, but the Boore siege of Lady Smith forced him to scrap the idea. Instead, Buller split his force in three. 15,000 men would head west to relieve Kimberly. 5,000 troops would secure the Cape Midland area. And Buller himself would lead 20,000 men into

Natal and break the siege of Lady Smith. And the British were in a hurry to rescue the garrisons since Buller could not be sure how long They could actually hold out. Since the British had to operate along the railway lines, surprise was impossible. The Boers had time to prepare defensive positions and were ready and waiting. On December 10th, British troops in the Cape Midlands attempted a complicated night march to surprise the Boers at dawn. But the British column got lost in the dark. And when dawn broke, they found themselves in the middle of the Boore

position Rather than on its flank. The desperate British launched a doomed frontal assault and Boore riflemen mowed them down and won the battle of Stormbach. On the road to Kimberly, Lord Methun at first drove the Boers back, but the tables turned at the Battle of Mahar Fontaine on December 11th. Once again, the British wanted to move up at night, but they were slowed by a thunderstorm and were struck in the open at sunrise. The Boores pinned them down under fire, And the British retreated in disorder. On December 15th, Buller's main army attacked Boore positions on

the Tugala River on the way to Ladymith. British artillery moved too far forward and the boores quickly knocked out two batteries. The British infantry assault fared no better and as they advanced in close order, Boore fighters ambushed them and blasted the Imperial troops from three sides. 18-year-old Boore fighter Denise Wrights, who later served in the British Army in World War I, recalled the battle. We heard a British voice call out, "Bayonets! Bayonets!" and they came at us like a wall. We poured volley after volley into their closely packed ranks. We delivered such a volume of

fire that the column swerved away to the left. Any soldier who got amongst us was shot or made prisoner. By midm morning, the battle of Kmeno was over. The British suffered over 1,000 Casualties and lost 10 field guns while only 38 bore fighters were killed or wounded. In just one week, the Boores had defeated the mighty British Empire three times, stunning UK public opinion and causing the Times newspaper to refer to the Black Week. By Christmas 1899, many in the Boore Republics thought that the war was all but won, even though the sieges continued. But

the shock and humiliation of the Black Week had galvanized the imperial government in London. After a string of defeats in December 1899, London sent its most famous soldier to South Africa. Lord Roberts arrived in January 1900 along with tens of thousands of reinforcements from all over the empire including Canada, New Zealand, Australia and a certain Moandas Gandhi who served with the Indian Ambulance Corps at the battle of Spion [ __ ] Roberts began to reorganize the army, including transport to free it from railways and new tactics To counter boore firepower. The British launched a new

offensive on February 10th, 1900. 50,000 men advanced on Kimberly and British cavalry caught the Boers offguard by bursting through their siege lines and threatening their line of retreat. A British officer described how the action evolved. The Enterprise appeared to us at first as quite hopeless. We believed only a few of us could come out of it alive, and had we Made a similar attack in training, we should certainly have all been put out of action and have been looked upon as idiots. When we galloped about a quarter of a mile, we received a very hot

frontal and flanking fire, and I looked along the ranks, expecting to see the men falling in masses. But I saw no one calm down, although the rifle fire was crackling all around us. The feeling was wonderfully exciting, just as in a good run to house. The boores lifted the siege and tried to withdraw, but with wagons and artillery in tow, they couldn't outrun the British. So, the boores unwisely dug in at Parair, which allowed Imperial troops to surround them. After a 10-day siege, 4,000 Boore fighters surrendered on February 27th. It was a crushing blow for

such a small army. Meanwhile, in Natal, Buller continued his efforts to relieve Lady Smith. The Boers were able to repel British attacks at Spionop in January and Falcrans in February. But another British attack at the Tugela Heights in late February broke the Boore defenses. British artillery and infantry launched methodical stepbystep attacks that resembled the fighting of the first world war and Lady Smith was relieved on February 27th. The Boore army was severely weakened and the British capitalized on their victories by invading Orange Free State and Transfal. They occupied Blumfontaine in March and Pritoria fell in

June. Bore efforts to halt the relentless advance were overwhelmed by British numbers and firepower. The last pitch battle of the war took place at Bhandal in Transfal in late August 1900 as the Boers struggled to hold their last defensive line. After several days of fierce fighting, the British cleared the position and it seemed that the war was over. By September 1900, the British had occupied the Boore republics and scattered their Armies. Lord Roberts proclaimed that the war had been won and returned home to England as a conquering hero. But the boores refused to give in

and unleashed a guerilla war. In early 1900, the situation for the boores was rapidly changing. Some boore commanders, in particular Christian devet, argued that the boores should adopt guerrilla war against Britain's numerical advantage. There had already been successful boore ambushes like the attack on an armored Train carrying war correspondent Winston Churchill who made an observation that would play a crucial role in the next phase of the war. Nothing looks more formidable and impressive than an armored train. But nothing is in fact more vulnerable and helpless. It was only necessary to blow up a bridge or

culvert to leave the monster stranded far from home and help at the mercy of the enemy. Devid put his ideas into practice with a spectacular guerilla Attack at Santa's post on March 31st, 1900. His commandos ambushed an unsuspecting British column, inflicting over 500 casualties and capturing seven artillery pieces for the loss of just eight men. Devet would continue his guerilla campaign with great success in 1900, ambushing isolated British columns and destroying the railway on which the British relied for supplies. Taking advantage of bore mobility and knowledge of the terrain, Dvate could emerge from The countryside

to strike without warning and easily eluded British attempts to pursue his commandos. Following the defeat at the battle of Bhandal in August, the remaining Boore commanders decided that conventional warfare was futile and also turned to guerrilla war instead. The Boore campaign began in earnest from October under the overall leadership of Louis Bhua. Commandos attacked British columns and supply depots, but targeted the rail Lines most of all. Lines were frequently sabotaged and unguarded trains were hijacked. During one such hijacking, a surprised American businessman was robbed at gunpoint by poor fighters. One of them was Johannes Stain.

The American was stunned and as he handed over his wealth, he said, "But sir, I thought that this war was over." I replied, "You were misinformed. This war is just beginning." The British initially had no answer to bore guerilla tactics. The Commando's speed and knowledge of the terrain made them too elusive for slower British columns to catch. The British carried out great sweeps of the countryside looking for commandos and placed faith in the so-called prisoner count of boers that they'd captured. In reality, most of the prisoners were just farmers or drifters seized by a passing

British column rather than actual boar fighters. Frustrated by continued boar resistance and their inability to Counter it, the British responded with brutality. In mid 1900, Lord Roberts ordered the destruction of farms thought to be supporting boar guerrillas with food or ammunition. His successor, Lord Kiter, took this measure much further. From December 1900 on, British troops were to burn all Boore owned farms regardless of whether they supported the gorillas or not. This relentless scorched earth campaign destroyed thousands of Boore farms and made about 150,000 civilians homeless. Kitchener also introduced the blockhouse system to limit bore mobility.

Blockouses were small, easily constructed pillboxes manned by eight soldiers. The British built 8,000 blockouses along rail lines and opposite river crossings. Each blockhouse was linked to its neighbors with wire obstacles, creating a permanent defended barrier which greatly hindered Boore movement. As with all guerilla wars, the fighting was Prolonged and brutal, and both sides inflicted cruelty on the civilian population. Boore commandos plundered African villages and pro- British farms for supplies, and the British burned down Boore farms. Combat between boar guerrillas and British columns usually took the form of ambushes and was often close-ranged and exceptionally violent.

The boores looted dead or captured British soldiers for equipment and the British responded by sumearily executing Any boar fighter found to be using British gear. Kitchener's relentless scorched earth policy created thousands of Boore refugees and their treatment by the British would lead to the creation of concentration camps. The British had first considered a refugee camp system for displaced boers in May 1900 and set up several ad hoc camps. Kitner made the system official in December 1900 as his scorched earth policy created thousands Of additional refugees and the concentration camp system was born. The British initially

intended the camps as refugee centers that provided accommodation, food and medical care. But problems with the system soon emerged. The camps were short of staff since the army argued that they were a civilian issue and refused to provide officers while civilian authorities felt that they were a low priority and struggled to find suitable Administrative and medical personnel. As a result, many of the camps were badly organized, underresourced, and poorly run. To worsen the situation, many camps were constructed in locations without adequate sanitation. But the most critical problem was chronic overcrowding. There were some 44,000 Boore

civilians in the camps by March 1901, but this had risen to 110,000 by December of the same year. These conditions led to terrible outbreaks of Disease like measles and dtheria, which killed many boores, including children. Survivor Ha Johanna Maria was 7 years old at the time. The camp was licefested. My aunt had to cut all my hair off. Thousands of newcomers arrived at the camp. Hundreds became sick. The marquee hospital tents were always full. The doctors worked day and night. People died like rats. Carts came down the rows of tents to pick up the dead.

And there were funerals every day. The shocking state of the concentration camps was exposed by British aid worker Emily Hob House in May 1901. Her damning report caused worldwide outrage against Britain. It presses hardest on the children. They droop in the terrible heat and with insufficient unsuitable food. Whatever you do, whatever the authorities do, and they are, I believe, doing their best with very limited means, it is all only a miserable patch on a great ill. The British government Appointed suffragette Millisent Faucet to lead an official investigation. Her report confirmed Hobous's findings and recommended major

reforms. From November 1901 onwards, the camps came under formal civilian control and conditions steadily improved. By the end of the war in May 1902, the monthly mortality rate in the camps was lower than that of the pre-war Bore republics. But these British measures came too late for tens of thousands of Boore civilians. The British also created a parallel camp system for black civilians. These camps were intended to be self-sufficient and had even fewer resources than the camps for the Boers. Hob House never had a chance to visit these camps, and the Faucet Commission ignored them

entirely. All told, about 27,000 Boore civilians died, of whom 22,000 were children under the age of 16. At least 25,000 black civilians also died in camps, bringing the death toll to a minimum of 52,000. The brutal guerilla war took a terrible toll on South Africa. Both sides had suffered thousands of military casualties. Large parts of the country had been destroyed and over 100,000 civilians were in turned in camps. In 1902, it finally came to an end. By early 1902, the remaining Boore fighters were exhausted. British scorched earth tactics denied them supplies, and the blockhouse system

limited their movement. The commandos were also Struggling to accommodate some 10,000 boore civilians who were sheltering in the wilderness to avoid falling into British hands. These civilians lacked food, shelter, and medical supplies and suffered so badly that in some cases, Boore fighters took them to the gates of concentration camps and left them for the British to take them in. Boore commanders calculated that there was no longer any prospect of victory, and continued fighting would only prolong The suffering of the Boore population. It had indeed been a bloody struggle. The British Army suffered over 100,000 casualties,

including 22,000 dead. And Boore military losses are estimated to be about 30,000 with 9,000 dead. Faced with this grim reality, the Boers open negotiations with the British, which led to the peace of Fenhin in May 1902. The Boers would surrender, but be granted amnesty. The British promised to protect the Dutch language. The poor republics Were absorbed into the empire but would get self-government in due course and the discussion of black African voting rights would be delayed until self-government. The second bore war shocked Britain which reformed its army and soon found new allies in Japan, France

and Russia. It was also a baptism of fire for many officers that would later play an important role during the first world war. The conflict foreshadowed many of The horrors of the 20th century battlefields and was a dark premonition of modern warfare's horrors for civilians. The second South African war convinced many in London that Britain might need allies after struggling to defeat the Boore republics, which helped pave the way for the Anton Cordial with France in 1904. Meanwhile, one of Europe's smaller nations experienced an internal crisis that would also help set the stage for 1914.

By the turn of the century, Serbian politics were dominated by the rivalry between two aristocratic families, Orenovich and Karajvich. The other driving force in public life was the idea of creating greater Serbia by acquiring other cells regions like Bosnia or Macedonia. King Alexander Obenovich tried to play Russia and AustriaHungary off against each other, but instead his government alienated Both powers. He also had trouble at home and in 1903 protesting students and workers clashed violently with police. Meanwhile, the ultraist secret society, the Black Hand, led by officer Dragutin Deitrivich, decided to launch a coup and its

members signed an oath. Anticipating certain collapse of the state and blaming for this primarily the king and his paramore Draamashin. We swear we shall murder them and to that affix our signatures. The night of June 10th 1903 they entered the royal palace in Belgrade, killed the king and queen Draa, mutilated their bodies and threw them out the window. The National Assembly then voted Petar Karajvich as King Petar I. In the years to come, Serbia's relations with AustriaHungary suffered. Its relationship with Russia grew closer, and the Black Hand remained influential. Russia was now more connected to

any future crisis in the Balkans, but soon Faced a war on its eastern frontier against Japan. By the late 19th century, Japan had emerged as a modern power after centuries of isolation. Under the Maji restoration, the government prioritized the adoption of Western science, dress, and military technology. The pace of change astonished outsiders like journalist George Rittner. In less than 20 years, Japan has acquired the knowledge it has taken us centuries to learn. Japanese leaders decided to put The country's new advantages to use and defeated Imperial China in the CenoJapanese War of 1894. Japan was now

the strongest power in East Asia and this new status led to rivalries with the European great powers, especially Russia. After its defeat in the Crimean War of the 1850s, the Russian Empire turned its attention to further expansion in the Far East. The city of Leivasto was founded in 1860 and its very name made Russian Intentions clear. Lord of the East. From 1894, Tar Nicholas II tried to increase Russian influence in Manuria and Korea despite the opposition of some of his ministers. After the CenoJapanese War, Russia and the other European powers forced Japan to give up

the strategic naval base at Port Arthur, which Russia then forced the Chinese to lease to it. Russian troops also participated in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 to 1903 and stayed in Manuria Afterwards. To Japanese leaders, the situation was intolerable. In their eyes, Russia was threatening Korea and Japan itself. A so-called dagger pointed at the heart of Japan. So, Japan went looking for allies, and they found one in Great Britain. The British were worried about potential Russian expansion towards British India. So, in 1902, Japan and the United Kingdom formed an alliance. This agreement

meant that Russia and Japan would face each Other one-on-one if it came to war. The weak emperors of China and Korea decided it would be best to remain neutral even if fighting broke out on their soil. So by 1904, Russian and Japanese ambitions in the Far East had reached breaking point. After brief negotiations failed, Japan began to prepare its new army and navy for war. In 1904, 82% of Japan's national budget went to the military, which had grown to around 400,000 men. The army modeled itself on the Prussian General staff and prioritized education, leadership, and

morale. They also tried to replace old clan loyalties with Japanese patriotism. The principal duty of soldiers is loyalty to sovereign and country. It is improbable that anyone born in this country will be wanting in patriotism. But for soldiers, this virtue is so essential that unless a man is strong in patriotism, he will be unfit for service. Remember always that duty is Heavier than a mountain, while death is lighter than a feather. The Imperial Japanese Navy modeled itself on Britain's Royal Navy and boasted state-of-the-art Britishbuilt capital ships. In 1904, it had the fourth biggest fleet in

the world, including six battleships and six battle cruisers. Britain also cooperated with Japan in intelligence, and the Japanese built an effective network of informants in the Russian Far East. Meanwhile, Russia's military was stagnating. There were some quality units in its 1 million strong army, but only 150,000 of these were in the Far East. The vast majority of the conscripts were poorly trained, motivated, and led. The officer corps was still the product of aristocratic favoritism, and non-noble officers were rare since they were considered politically unreliable. The situation was no better in the Navy. Many sailors came

from landlocked Provinces with little maritime experience and they complained that the officers didn't even know their names. In Port Arthur and Vladivastto, the Russians had seven battleships and 11 cruisers. But these ships were of an older design than those of the Japanese. So the Japanese set out to plan the coming war, and their strategic thinking was dominated by the Navy. Its first strike would be planned in minute detail. Japan's war plan was to defeat The Russian fleet, win decisive battles on land, and then achieve a favorable peace deal. Russia's financial and manpower resources were far

greater than Japan's. So, the Japanese wanted to win a short war to force the Russians out of Korea and China's Laoong Peninsula. The Japanese high command planned to land troops in Korea and then push north into Manuria. Further landings would cut off Port Arthur and open another line of advance from the Laong Peninsula. Japanese troops would then join forces for a major battle and push the Russians back to Harbin. The Japanese hoped that at that point the United States would intervene diplomatically and broker a peace treaty. But for any of this to work, Japan's maritime

supply and logistical routes must be secured. And this meant crippling the Russian Navy in a surprise attack. The Russian government on the other hand didn't plan war with Japan in spite of encouragement From the German Kaiser. St. Petersburg was convinced of its racial superiority and that SAR assumed war would break out only if he decided to start one. The Russian chain of command in the Far East was equally unprepared. Minister of War Alexe Kuropatkin was in charge of the military. But in Manuria, he was subordinate to viceroy Alexev and the two did not get along.

In case of war with Japan, Kuropatkin wanted to retreat and wait for reinforcements from Europe. Alexev wanted to stand and fight and his opinion counted for more since he was the Tsar's favorite uncle. Japan was ready and declared war on Russia on February 8th, 1904. But before the declaration arrived in St. Petersburg, the Japanese combined fleet arrived at Port Arthur. The Russian Pacific Fleet was not overly worried about a Japanese attack. The ships had anchored outside the main harbor, and some torpedo nets had been laid, but few ships were on Full alert, and many sailors

were ashore in Port Arthur's bars. There was even a party on the flagship Petro Pavlovk. Admiral Togo Hehachiro was worried that Russian coastal batteries might put his irreplaceable battleships at risk. So he planned a nighttime sneak attack. The capital ships waited at some distance while 10 destroyers armed with torpedoes crept up on the unsuspecting Russian ships in the darkness. At 11:30 p.m., the first four Japanese destroyers Launched their torpedoes from a distance of 650 m. Six missed their targets, but two hit the cruisers Palada and Revan. The Russians opened fire on the second group of

destroyers, forcing them to fire their torpedoes from 1.5 km away. A Russian sailor recalled the moment the battleship Tesarvich was hit. At 11:38 p.m., the commander heard the order, "Trpedo defense!" in the cabin. To get dressed and on deck was a matter of 2 minutes. During this time, they Opened fire. Barely on deck, the commander recognized two Japanese torpedo boats at the rear and a torpedo aiming at the ship from port. A second later, the explosion occurred. Togo ordered his fleet to close in, but the Russian coastal batteries soon forced the Japanese vessels back. No

Japanese ships were lost, but only a few Russian ships were damaged and all could be repaired. Psychologically though, the attack had shaken the Russians and Achieved its strategic goal since the cautious Russian commanders ordered their fleet to stay in Port Arthur. This gave the Japanese a free hand to continue landing troops as they'd planned. In fact, before the Port Arthur attack began, the Japanese started landing 3,000 troops in Korea at the international port of Chimulpo. Two Russian warships watched closely, but couldn't intervene in a neutral port. Eventually, in contravention of International law, the Japanese told

the Russian ships they had to leave the harbor or face destruction. The Russians faced impossible odds, but hoisted their battle flags and engaged the Japanese. British Captain Lewis Bailey witnessed the scene. Here were 694 Russian officers and men going to almost certain death for no one expected them or at any rate many of them to survive the most unequal conflict. And yet they had their bands Playing and were cheering. And their cheers were heartily returned by about 400 British officers and men who felt very sorry for them and admired their pluck in giving battle. The

waiting Japanese defeated the Russians in the battle of Chimupo Bay and the Russian commanders scuttled their own ships. The Russo-Japanese war began at sea but without a decisive engagement. Instead, the focus of the war now shifted to the land. The Japanese First Army landed 42,000 men in Korea and had planned to land more at Dali to cut off Port Arthur. For the additional landing, First Army would have to push back the 19,000 men of the Russian Eastern Detachment along the Yaloo and I rivers. The first clashes pitted Russian Cossacs against the Japanese in wintry conditions.

Despite the Ksak's fierce reputation, military translator Usa Oihiko was unimpressed. The Ksak army is an army in name only. In fact, they are nothing more than trick riders. There are several hundred,000 cosaks. But if all of them were to come together, what would they be able to do? They are useless soldiers in a war. The fast flowing Yalu River was a natural defensive position, but the Russian chain of command was disorganized. Kuropatkin ordered local commander General Mikail Zasulich to retreat if attacked, while Alexev told Him to stand firm. Zasulich chose to stay and fight. The

Japanese dug artillery pits to hide their guns and scouts disguised as Korean fishermen reconoided Russian positions. The Russians, on the other hand, moved around openly and didn't camouflage their large artillery carriages. Japanese engineers also built a large bridge in plain sight of the Russian artillerymen who opened fire and exposed their gun positions even further. Japanese counterb fire from concealed guns, then knocked out many Russian positions before the main attack began. Zasulich expected the Japanese to attack near the wide shallow mouth of the river within range of their naval guns. Instead, the Japanese used what would

become a common tactic in the war. The 12th Division crossed the Yaloo quite some distance from the Russian flank. Zasulich thought that this was a faint and held his position which allowed the 12th Division to capture the high ground and cross the A River after fierce fighting. Japanese Captain Taki Mina recalled, "The fierce battle lasted 3 hours, and all of those who fell were killed or wounded when crossing the I River. It is said that the soldiers standing in the midst of the smoke and bullets were in high spirits, and with a vigor that could

never be seen in ordinary training, they chanted military songs in One voice and kept pace as they advanced. All is as it should be. With the Russian left flank collapsing on May 1st, the Japanese launched a general assault in the center across the Yaloo. They drove the Russians from their trenches where the Japanese artillery fired on them from the heights. Russian forces retreated to the gorges behind the river, which was also a defensible position if it weren't for the confusion in the Russian command. The Japanese poured fire onto the Russian columns and the 12th division

began to surround them. Lacking clear orders, some Russian units surrendered. The Battle of the Yellow River cost around 2,000 Russian and 900 Japanese lives. Most Russian forces had escaped, but their most important positions in Manuria were lost. The Japanese landings at Dali went ahead and it seemed the war was going Japan's way. Foreign banks now began to loan Japan much needed cash as Well. After the battle on the Yalu, the Japanese were in position to move on the Russian naval base at Port Arthur from the landward side. The arrival of Admiral Stipan Macarov at Port

Arthur seemed to give the Russians some hope as he led aggressive naval sorties against the blockading Japanese fleet. But in April 1904, the flagship Petro Pavlovsk hit a Japanese mine and sank with all hands, including the admiral. To make matters worse, the Japanese third army Moved up from Dali and besieged Port Arthur from the landward side. Japanese commander General Nogi had captured the town in one day in the Cenino-Japanese War. But in 1904, it would be a harder nut to crack. With concrete defenses, barbed wire, machine guns, and hand grenades, the Russian garrison inflicted heavy

losses on the first Japanese assaults. Noi ordered suicidal human wave attacks known as nikodan kyaki or human bullets. In a single assault, the Japanese lost 16,000 men. Buddhist chaplain Mamia Aur recalled the carnage. Some of them were missing half of their bodies. Some had one arm and one leg removed. Some had their heads torn off with only the skin attached. and some had their shoes filled with the flesh of their feet and were abandoned. When burned, they looked like blackened rotten fish, and you couldn't know whose son or husband they once were. No illustration of

the Buddhist hells has Ever portrayed such cruelties. The Japanese government, however, hid the scale of these losses from the public. With Port Arthur under threat, the tsar ordered Admiral Vilgam Vitkept to take his ships and make a run to join the cruiser force at Vladivasto. Vitkept was not happy about the order, but on August 10th, the Pacific fleet steamed out with six battleships, four cruisers, and eight destroyers. Admiral Togo's combined fleet had four Battleships and two cruisers along with smaller ships. Togo had previously lost two battleships to mines, so he was reluctant to take risks,

but he could not allow the Russian fleets to join. The Japanese first tried to sail across the front of the Russians in a maneuver known as crossing the tea, but they ended up behind the Russian ships. The Japanese chased the Russians while the fleets exchanged fire, and a heavy Russian 12-in shell hit Togo's flagship, Mikasa. The Mikasa withdrew, but just as the Russians seemed to be slipping away, two Japanese 12-in shells smashed into the Russian flagship Cesarich. Admiral Vitk was killed, and the ship jammed in a port turn. The Russian fleet panicked and lost cohesion,

but was saved from disaster when the battleship Ret Vizan charged at the Japanese. The Pacific Fleet limped back to Port Arthur and decided to wait for reinforcements. Those reinforcements were the Baltic Fleet, which was renamed the Second Pacific Fleet and set off on an epic 8-month journey around the world in October 1904. In a series of battles fought throughout the summer of 1904, the Japanese army gradually drove Russian forces away from Port Arthur to defensive positions around the Manurian town of Mukden. Then in January 1905, Port Arthur capitulated and Japanese artillery sunk the Russian Pacific

fleet in the harbor. The string Of defeats caused much tension amongst the Russians, including between General Samsonov and Renamp, whose relations would not improve by the time they commanded at the battle of Tannenburg in 1914. Interestingly, a German military observer of this campaign was Max Hoffman, who later met the Russian generals again at the same battle during the First World War. Japan had won a string of important victories so far, But they'd also suffered heavy casualties. Russia's much larger reserves meant that it could replace its losses by sending fresh troops east on the Trans Siberian

Railway. Now that Port Arthur had fallen, five Japanese armies could join for the decisive battle that their army staff had envisioned to avoid a long war. Japanese commander General Oyama Iwao knew the Russians were planning a counterattack, so he decided to strike First at Mukten. For the coming battle, the Japanese concentrated 200,000 men, 7,300 cavalry, and 1,000 artillery pieces. The three Russian armies had around 275,000 men, 16,000 cavalry, and 1,200 artillery pieces. The Japanese, however, had about twice as many machine guns as did the Russians. Oyama planned to once again outflank the Russian position and

trap them in a pinser movement so that this time they could not escape. On February 17th, the Japanese army of the Yaloo began to move through the hills of the Russian eastern flank. A strong artillery barrage pinned the Russian center and Kuropatkin assumed the main Japanese thrust was in the east. He shifted his units across the 100 km long front which weakened his western flank and it was in the west that the Japanese third army launched its primary effort. General Nogi swung around Mukten to threaten the Russians lines of retreat. German military Observer Captain Fonbeckman

recorded the Japanese use of machine guns in the advance. The Russian fire was silenced but broke out again whenever the machine gun fire slackened. The Japanese infantry used these pauses in the enemy's fire to press forward to close range under cover of their own machine gun fire. Russian troops began to panic. Officers tried to organize counterattacks, but the chaos turned into a route. Fleeing Russian troops burned supplies and looted the remaining vodka. Russian officer Anton Denikin, who would later lead the whites in the Russian civil war, recalled the chaos. Individual soldiers, sometimes in small groups,

then scattering again, helplessly looked for a way out of the trap. The whole field, as far as the eye could see, was littered with abandoned boxes and heaps of luggage. Even from the commanderin-chief's baggage train, Wagons and carts, ambulances, and riderless horses all rushed about in different directions. For the first time in the war, I saw panic. Despite the disaster, Kuropatkin was able to put together a rear guard and prevent total defeat. The fighting had been hard and the Japanese were once again too exhausted to pursue the weakened Russians. The Japanese had won, but most

of the Russian army had escaped and Japanese casualties were an Unsustainable 25%. The battle of Mukten was likely the largest in history up to that point in terms of troop numbers and ammunition expended. The Japanese fired as much ammo at Mukten as the entire German army in the six-monthlong Franco-Russian War, and the Russians used even more. The Japanese were again victorious at Mukten, but the land war had turned into a meat grinder that they couldn't continue for long. It was up to the Navy To bring the victory that Japan so desperately needed. The voyage of

the Russian Baltic Fleet had taken it around the world. But by the time it reached the theater of war in May 1905, it was in a poor state. Its 29,000 km journey had seen it accidentally fire on British fishing trwers and face mutinies, refueling problems, and mechanical issues. Its commander, Admiral Zenovi Mad Dog Roesfinsky, even referred to some of his older ships as quote self Sinkers. The Japanese fleet was well informed of the Russians journey and used the time to make repairs and train. Admiral Togo planned to ambush the Russian ships as they passed through

the 50 km wide Sushima Strait on their way to Vladivasto. Torpedo boats would harass the Russians at night and the main Japanese fleet would strike the next day. When the Japanese cighted the Russian fleet early on May 27th, the sea was too rough for torpedo boats. So it Would be an all or nothing attack with the main fleet. That afternoon, the Japanese fleet centered on four battleships, eight armored cruisers, and four protected cruisers, crossed in front of the Russian force, led by eight battleships and 10 cruisers, and performed a bold U-turn on its port side.

For Admiral Akiyama Sanyuki, this was the culmination of years of preparation. The navy had been built up through many Years of painstaking work, but it all came to a head in a mere 30inute maneuver. The decade I spent training and tactics and strategy was also all for the sake of those 30 minutes. It could not have happened without a decade of preparation. So we could think of it as a decadel long war. The Japanese ships steamed obliquely towards the leading Russian vessels and opened fire on the battleships. Both sides scored hits and the Mikasa was

Badly hit. The Russians had the heavier guns, but the Japanese had a superior rate of fire and better fire control. The angle of attack also meant that the Russians could only fire from their four turrets while the Japanese could fire broadsides using all available guns. The effect was devastating as Admiral Roesfinsky recalled. The paint burnt with a clear flame on the steel surfaces. Boats, ropes, hammocks, and woodwork caught fire. Cartridges in the Ready racks ignited. Upper works and light guns were swept away, turrets jammed. In the first hour of battle, the Russian flagship Suborov was

hit and Roesfinsky was wounded. Shortly afterwards, Japanese shells sank the battleship Oavia, the first modern ship to be sunk by gunnery alone. A Russian sailor on a nearby destroyer watched his comrades abandoned ship. The whole of the starboard side as far As the keel was laid bare. Her bright plating looked like the wet scales of some sea monster. And suddenly, as if by command, all the men who crowded to the starboard side jumped down upon these scales. Most of them were dashed against the bill keel and fell crippled into the sea. in the water. They

formed an unimaginable mass and the enemy's shell never ceased the whole time from bursting over them. A few more seconds and the Oabia disappeared beneath the Water. The battleship Alexander Trey charged the Japanese line with all guns blazing, which brought a temporary reprieve for the hardpressed Russians. At 7:00 p.m. the battle started up again and damaged Russian ships were now easy prey. The Japanese sank the Alexander Trai then the battleship Baradino. As night fell Togo sent in his torpedo boats. The next morning only two Russian battleships remained and the Japanese had surrounded the remnants of

the Baltic fleet. As there was no hope of reaching Vladivastto the Russian fleet surrendered. The Japanese victory at Tsushima was staggering. 34 of 38 Russian ships were sunk, captured, or interned in neutral ports, including all the battleships. About 5,000 Russian sailors were killed. Japanese losses were three torpedo boats and 110 dead. The Russian Navy was all but gone, and Sar Nicholas II agreed to negotiate peace terms. The United States mediated The peace talks in New Hampshire and President Teddy Roosevelt was heavily involved. Both belligerents needed to end the war quickly. Japan was victorious but militarily

exhausted and revolutionary unrest was brewing in Russia. Japanese troops occupied Sakalen Island in July to pressure the Russians while the Russians sent fresh divisions to Manuria in order to pressure the Japanese. Eventually, the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed on September 5th, 1905. Russia would withdraw from Manuria and the Laoong Peninsula and grant most of the railway concessions to Japan. South Sakalene would remain Japanese while Russia recognized Japanese dominance over nominally independent Korea. Russia, however, refused to pay a war indemnity to now bankrupt Japan. President Roosevelt received the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts with the

citation referring to Japan as quote one of the world's great powers. In Japan, Shock at the supposedly lenient treaty led to riots and martial law. But the public was not aware of how tenuous the Japanese position had become. The treaty was not as controversial in Russia, but the defeat strengthened opposition to the autocratic regime and helped spark the 1905 revolution that nearly toppled the tsar. The Russo-Japanese war was a deadly conflict. About 50,000 Russian and 80,000 Japanese soldiers died in combat or of disease. It also had a Global impact, hence the nickname World War Z.

Colonized peoples took inspiration from the defeat of a European power. While Western military observers noted the destructive power of modern weapons like the machine gun, it weakened Russia, made Japan into a major power, and caused some to conclude that modern wars could be won relatively quickly and decisively. Developments that would cast a long shadow in the years leading to 1914. As Russia struggled with revolutionaries at home, defeat in Asia, and a brief war scare with Britain over the Dogger Bank incident, the other great powers nearly came to blows over Morocco. Morocco occupied an important strategic

location with Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts, proximity to British Gibralar, French Algeria, and the Spanish enclaves of Theuta and Melia. An 1880 agreement gave 12 states equal economic rights in Morocco, but the French and Spanish put Sultan Mule Abdelaziz under pressure. Paris and Madrid signed a secret agreement in 1904, accepting each other's spheres of influence. But the French went further. They wanted indirect control of the country. So they pushed west from Algeria and expanded their economic presence at the expense of other foreign powers and the Sultan's government. When Britain agreed to recognize French interests in Morocco,

though international tensions flared, The German government didn't think Morocco was important, but they wanted compensation for any French gains. Berlin worried it was being excluded from imperial decision-making. So on March 31st, 1905, German warships appeared in the harbor at Tangier. Kaiser Vilhelm himself was on board and declared that Germany would protect Moroccan independence and the first Moroccan crisis began. The press was full of war- rellated headlines for a Time and France and Spain signed another secret influence sharing agreement. The powers finally met at Aljaseras in 1906. At the conference, the position of Spain, France, and

Britain with passive support from Russia and Italy prevailed over Germany supported only by AustriaHungary. Although the conference agreed all had equal commercial rights in Morocco, France and Spain got military bases there and Paris continued to seek more control. The Moroccan Crisis of 1905 further damaged cooperation between the great powers and isolated Germany and AustriaHungary. Just one year later, AustriaHungary would try to isolate one of its neighbors in the so-called pig war. Serbia got closer to Russia after the coup of 1903, but its economy tied it to AustriaHungary. 85% of Serbian exports went to the Habsburg

state, mostly grain, livestock, and meat, especially pork. But Hungarian land owners opposed Cheap imports, and Vienna feared Serbian intentions towards south slavs in the empire. So in April 1906, AustriaHungary imposed tariffs partly for economic and partly for political reasons. As soontobe foreign minister Aloyo Fon Erental explained, "Whereas at the moment we are forced to defend ourselves in any way we can against greater Serbian greed, the South Slav group created by us under the ages of the crown of St. Steven would itself Exert such a strong magnetic force that in the long run the Sava Kingdom

would not be able to resist. In economic terms, the magnetic force would manifest itself in Serbia itself being compelled sooner or later to request membership in our customs union. Vienna gave Belgrade an ultimatum to accept the tariffs or face a total embargo. But the move backfired. Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria simply negotiated trade deals with other countries like France and Germany. By 1908, Vienna had to lower the tariffs to win back the Serbian market for its paper, iron, and glass. So, Serbia had won the pig war and demonstrated its sovereignty. But AustriaHungary's embarrassing failure further increased

tensions between the two countries. Things got even worse in 1908 when Vienna shocked Europe by annexing Bosnia and Herzgoina. AustriaHungary had occupied Bosnian Herzgovena since 1878, but on paper they Were still part of the Ottoman Empire. The Hapsburgs didn't want to risk upsetting the other powers, especially Russia, by annexing them, a move also opposed by Serbia and Montenegro. In fact, many Serbian and South Slav nationalists felt that Bosnia and Herzgoina should one day become part of greater Serbia or a future South Slav state. The Ottoman Empire, already struggling with an uprising in Macedonia, was rocked

in July 1908 by The Young Turk Revolution, causing even more instability. Vienna was determined to strengthen its position in the Balkans and prevent what it saw as the threat of Serbian expansion. Austrohungarian Foreign Minister Aloyal met with Russian Foreign Minister Alexander Isvolski to discuss the Bosnian annexation plan and Russian ambitions to control the Turkish straits. Erental left the meeting thinking Isvoski had agreed to Annexation but Isvolski left the meeting thinking that nothing had been decided. On October 6th 1908 AustriaHungary unilaterally announced that they were annexing Bosnia and Herzgovina. Most of the great powers except Germany

were outraged at what they viewed as a destabilizing move especially the Ottomans and Russians. Isolski claimed that he'd been deceived, but Russia didn't want to risk a fight after their 1905 defeat by Japan. Public protests Broke out in Serbia, Montenegro, and some towns in Bosnia itself. Even moderate nationalist politicians in Serbia like Milovan Milovanovich were furious. The Serbian national program demands that Bosnia and Herzgovena be emancipated. One day in the near or distant future, Serbia and all of Serbdom will fight AustriaHungary in a struggle for life or death. Despite their opposition, in April 1909, The

great powers and the Serbian government accepted the annexation. Ottomans received some financial compensation. Meanwhile, Austrohungarian authorities had faced some active resistance by Serb nationalists in their new province. Archduke France Federinand was not a war hawk, but he favored a crackdown. We have shown Europe once again that we are still a great power. Now, however, the main thing is to keep the peace in Bosnia with an iron rod. Any attempt at a push or an infiltration by Serb militants from across the borders must be met with execution by shooting, hanging, etc. We have to keep an

especially tight reign on the Serbs in Bosnia. Keep them frightened. The Bosnian annexation crisis entrenched hostile relations between AustriaHungary and Serbia and further weakened the international order which resulted in a second crisis in Morocco. The end of the Moroccan crisis of 1905 had not brought stability to the weak kingdom. France and Spain still distrusted each other and France and Germany argued over the French arrest of German members of the French Foreign Legion in 1908. But the real driver of the second Moroccan crisis was an uprising against Sultan Mule Abdel Hafid. In April and May 1911,

France intervened against the rebels officially to stop anti-Christian and anti-European Violence, but in practice to protect its own influence. As the French consulate Fez made clear, international agreements have given France a special position in Morocco, which it would prefer to acquire with goodwill, but which it has made up its mind to acquire anyhow. We will cooperate with the Moroccan government only if we can intervene with the army in finance and in administration in order to improve them while respecting The principle of the Sultan's sovereignty. That is what we mean by collaboration. Spain then decided without

consulting France to occupy the coast around the town of Larash. The Germans misinterpreted this as evidence that France and Spain were about to occupy all of Morocco, which German prestige could not tolerate. The Franco Spanish moves were in fact not the first step in a full takeover, despite their secret 1904 agreement to do so, which the Germans knew nothing about. Berlin complained, and although Paris was already considering how to compensate Germany, the German gunboat Panther steamed into Agadier Bay on July 1st, 1911. German foreign minister Alfred Fonidalinvear took an aggressive position. Anyone who declares in

advance that he will not fight cannot achieve anything in politics. [Music] Newspapers talked of war. Stock markets plunged and there were runs on banks. But France did not want war with Germany and the German government realized it had antagonized Britain. So in November, the crisis was resolved by negotiations in Berlin without Spain, which later signed a Moroccan agreement with France. The second Moroccan crisis, both the French intervention and the German threats, further damaged the already Weakened international system that rested on secret agreements and unclear alliances. FrancoGerman relations were already bad, but Germany's aggressive response also

damaged relations with Britain. In 1911 though, there was another crisis in North Africa, one that resulted in a full-on imperial war of conquest in Libya. Following Italian unification in 1871, nationalist movements in the New Kingdom continued to call for further expansion. Under the Banner of New Italy, nationalists dreamed of the reconstitution of the Roman Empire through imperial expansion in the Mediterranean. But it was Britain and France who ended up expanding their influence in the region in the late 19th century. Italian imperialists looked on with dismay in 1882 as France took control of Tunisia and Britain

occupied Egypt. The Moroccan crisis of summer 1911 was a clear sign that imperial competition in the Mediterranean was Still alive and well. This left Ottoman Libya, the provinces of Tripolitania, Sirenica, and Fzan as the one viable Italian target in North Africa, and some Italians worried the French or British might take it before they had the chance. Italy did expand its soft power via banks, schools, and hospitals in Libya, but diplomats like Tomaso Titoni called for military action. Tripolitania is necessary to Italy for the Mediterranean balance. We could wait If there were not the danger that

we might lose it. And indeed, we waited patiently until such danger appeared on the horizon. Today, this danger begins to take shape. And with the passage of time, it will grow more severe. Thus, the occupation of Tripolitania imposes itself upon us as an unavoidable necessity. The Ottomans knew about Italy's ambitions and tried to avoid the worst by granting Italy economic concessions. But these offers couldn't hide the empire's weakness. It had suffered decades of economic and military decline and political divisions caused by the young Turk revolution of 1908 and failed counter coup by the Sultan in

1909. Ottoman minister to Rome Seedinbe understood things with Italy were unlikely to end at the negotiating table. The concessions that we make to the Italians in our African provinces will do nothing but increase their Appetite and offer them occasion to intervene. Italian appetite is not satiable and whatever concessions or facilitations will be fatally followed by others. In this way, the sacrifices that we might undertake will have no outcome but to represent temporary satisfactions without lasting effects. With tensions rising in 1911, Italian Prime Minister Giovanni Gilotti and Foreign Minister Antonio Danguliano went on a public relations

and diplomatic Offensive to win over nationalist support. The press reported on Ottomans supposed insults to Italian commercial interests and citizens in Libya which were grossly exaggerated. Goliti though was still cautious. The nationalists imagined that Tripoli is the territory of a poor black simpleton whom a European state can dethrone as he wishes. But Tripoli is a province of the Ottoman Empire and the Ottoman Empire is a great European power. Despite his hesitations, Joliti felt he was running out of time. Not only was there a danger of French or British action, but Italy's allies were against weakening

the Ottomans. AustriaHungary wanted stability in the Balkans, and Germany wanted a strong Ottoman Empire in case of war with the Antant. So, the Italian government struck a deal with the French. France wouldn't interfere in Libya, and Italy wouldn't interfere in Tunisia and Morocco. Meanwhile, the Ottomans had actually moved troops away from Libya to deal with a rebellion in Yemen. Though they did bring in weapons to arm the locals in Libya in anticipation of the coming conflict. On September 27th, 1911, Joliti gave the Ottomans an ultimatum based on supposed bias against Italian business interests. Agree to

Italian occupation of Libya within 24 hours or face military action. So Italy had thrown down the gauntlet in its quest for imperial glory in Libya. The Ottoman government offered some further concessions, but the Italians rejected them and the ultimatum expired on September 28th. It would be war. The Italurkish war began with a somewhat reluctant sounding announcement from Joliti. The Italian government therefore finding itself forced to safeguard its dignity and its interests has decided to proceed to the military occupation of Tripoli and Sirenica. This solution is the only one which Italy can accept. The Italian military

now had to arrange an invasion on extremely short notice since they weren't fully aware of government plans until September. All the same, between October 3rd and 21st 1911, 25,000 Italian troops landed along the coast and captured Tripoli, Tobuk, Berna, Benghazi, and Holmes. At first, Ottoman resistance was generally light since they were outgunned and outnumbered. The Italian landings had Been successful, but advancing into the Libyan hinterland would prove far more difficult. The Italians knew so little about the interior that some of their planning documents even used ancient sources like Caesar for topographic and demographic information. Italian

leaders hoped that by seizing the towns, they could force the Ottomans to surrender. Instead, the Ottomans simply withdrew in good order beyond the range of Italian naval guns. As Italian soldier Inoenzo Bianke wrote, "The invasion barely seemed to be a war at all. I believe that it is not real war but little attacks and soon we shall overcome. Overall, I'm very happy and you'll see that it will be finished very soon. Bianke was killed in action just 6 days later. One factor the Italian plan had not taken into account was the local Arab population. Italian

planners assumed that the Arabs would welcome them as liberators from Ottoman Oppression and did not expect local resistance, which turned out to be a mistake. So by late October, the Italians were feeling confident. They'd captured the coast and the Ottomans had seemingly fled the field. But instead of capitulating as the Italians expected, the Ottomans and Arabs made common cause. Militarily, the Italians seemed to be in a strong position. The Italian conscripts brought with them several new pieces of equipment, like their modern Gray green uniform and the Modello 91 magazine rifle. Both of these pieces of

kit with some modifications would actually continue in service until 1945. The Italians also had the support of the large naval guns of the Italian ships offshore as well as maximum machine guns and Germanbuilt crop artillery. Estimates of the number of Ottoman troops vary greatly. There were probably somewhere between 2500 and 5,000 Ottoman regulars and 20 to 35,000 Arab tribesmen Under the command of local shakes of the Senosi Sufi order. They also had German artillery, but had no heavy naval guns to back them up. Their model 1893 Mouser was considered superior to that of the Italians

because of its larger caliber. British doctor Ernest Griffin was with the Turkish Red Crescent in Libya and explained why. The injuries produced by the small 6.5 mm conicle bullets used by the Italians were scarcely ever severe. And if the wounds had not been infected, We had the satisfaction of soon sending our Arab patients back to their duties in the field. Ottoman forces identified what they felt was a weakness in the fortified Italian line near Tripoli. Italian trenches in this area did not run through the usual scrubland, but directly through an oasis, which could provide cover

for advancing Ottoman troops. Additionally, the Italians had not built many fortifications around the settlement of Shah al-Shhat. On October 23rd, supported by diversionary attacks to the south, Ottoman forces attacked a 6 km stretch of front between Fort Sidi Messi and the sea. Around 1,800 men of the 11th Beralieri regiment defended the area and were awakened at 7:00 a.m. by the sound of gunfire and dogs barking. As the Italians scrambled to men their positions, local Arabs came out of Shahal al-Shhat and attacked them from behind. Italian soldier Evangelista Salvatoreé recalled the shock. The Saraseni seemed to

rise out of the earth on every side of us. Italian reinforcements arrived late and eventually beat back the Ottomans, but Italian losses were heavy. At least 21 officers and 482 men were killed, including 250 who were massacred in a cemetery after they'd surrendered. Some of the bodies had been mutilated. Officially, the Italian general staff downplayed the setback. Our losses were not light, but justified by the result And showed that the morale of our troops was excellent. The Italian response on the ground was swift and brutal as they executed around 4,000 Arabs by firing squad in

the following days. Sharat and other guerilla raids caused the Italian government to increase the expeditionary force to 100,000 men, far more than planned. They even brought in Ascaris from Eratraa. Joliti also escalated the war Politically and announced the full annexation of Libya on November 5th. This was mostly a symbolic gesture since the Italians only controlled the coast, but historian Bruce Vandervort argues it ensured that the war would continue. In retrospect, the annexation appears to have virtually assured that the Turks would have no option but to continue fighting. The battle of Shahal Shhat was a major

psychological blow for Italy. They had held their position, but it was A defeat that showed the war would not be as quick as they had hoped. By the late fall of 1911, the Italo Turkish War had ground to a stalemate. The Ottomans couldn't expel the Italians, but the Italians couldn't force a decisive battle because the Ottomans and Arabs began to wage a full-on guerilla war. Italian naval supremacy also meant the Turks couldn't send reinforcements, but they did manage to sneak in shipments of arms and a small group of volunteer Officers, including Anverb and Mustafa Kimal.

Kimal made it to Libya by sailing to Egypt on a Russian ship and disguising himself as a journalist. Despite the previous struggles between the Arab tribes and the Ottomans, the two now work together against the Italian invaders. Ottoman commander Enver Verb and tribal leader Sheikh Omar al- Muttar committed to the guerilla strategy. Keep the Italians pinned in the coastal towns and exhaust them Through attrition. Kimal, who ended up being wounded in the eye, operated in the Da sector and used his 9,000 men to keep 15,000 Italians busy. The Ottomans wanted to continue to dominate the

Arabs, but also saw much value in their allies. As Enber expressed, I have become the master of the situation. Into my hands has fallen a power, the Sanosia, a force for which the various powers of Europe, the Italians, the French, the English spend millions to Have in their hands. Even the Kadiv had tried to appropriate and employ them against us. And thus this force has come to me without my spending a dime. Arab leader Farhat Al- Zawi made the somewhat different Arab motivations clear to a French reporter. Our men are patriots in bare feet and

rags like your soldiers of the revolution and not religious fanatics. If the Turkish government abandons us, we will proclaim that it has forfeited its right over our Country. We will form the Republic of Tripolitania. Italian commanders wanted to push into the desert, but they lacked the intelligence and logistics, had poor desert equipment, and were vulnerable to the gorillas. So instead, they advanced little by little, digging trenches as they went, sometimes as often as every 100 m. One British journalist called it, quote, purely imbecile. In December, the Italians tried to bring the Turks and Arabs to

a decisive battle at Ain Zara, an Ottoman base on the high ground with commanding views around Tripoli. The Italian attack opened on December 4th with around 15,000 men supported by heavy artillery and naval guns. Two assault columns of Italian infantry advanced on the rudimentary Ottoman trenches with one running into some severe difficulty. The defenders were forced to abandon the trenches and were then hit hard in the open by Italian Artillery fire. The Ottomans withdrew 40 km to the south, but the Italian cavalry failed to surround them. This allowed the Ottomans to escape once again, but

they did leave much of their artillery behind. The Italian authorities and government-friendly newspapers trumpeted Ain Zara as a major victory. While journalists from neutral states were quick to point out Ain Zara was only a few kilometers from the Italian lines. Even though the Ottomans lost at Ain Zara, they were becoming more confident. Time appeared to be on their side and there was always more desert to withdraw into if need be. Meanwhile, as the Italians advanced, their morale dropped and disease spread. As Enverb well knew, sometimes there come deserters who say very interesting things of the

Italians. Almost every day, Italian losses from dysentery are about 20 men. The hospitals are full. The morale of the troops is low and all want peace. From December to March, the Italians made a few more landings to consolidate their position and to intercept Turkish gun shipments. But these actions were simply meant to boost public support back home. As the war dragged on, Italian media interests did not weaken. In fact, press coverage was unprecedented for a modern conflict. And one aspect grabbed headlines more than any other, the war in the air. The Italo Turkish War saw

the first significant wartime use of Airplanes for reconnaissance and bombing. The Italian first airplane flatillaa had nine machines including Blero and Nupar monoplanes plus 11 pilots. On October 23rd, Captain Carlo Piaza made the first ever official combat flight when he reconidered Ottoman positions along the coast. And on November 1st, Italians made the first ever bombing raid when pilots dropped Chipelli grenades into the Ottoman camps. On October 25th, Ottoman gunners Became the first to hit an enemy combat aircraft with anti-aircraft fire. Although such fire was usually inaccurate, Captain Jeppi Rossi experienced a close call. We flew

at an altitude of 600 m and had covered 15 km when we spotted the first group of Arab tents. These welcomed us with such a volley of accurate fire that I had half a mind to give up continuing the mission. At 100 m away from the center of the camp, I gave the second signal. It was a wonderful sight. The bomb had erupted with the intended effect. But the joy of this perception was severely impaired by the incessant crackle of the volley of fire aimed at us. I tried to climb but was unsuccessful and so

was passing over the left side of the camp when my companion shouted that he was wounded. I had turned around to look at him when the engine stopped and we began to descend. Happily, it started again, but we were struck by two more bullets. Although aerial bombing grabbed public attention, its military effects were relatively minor, reconnaissance, whether from fixedwing aircraft or balloons, was far more valuable to Italian operations. The photos they took supplemented the limited maps of the region, and on several occasions, planes were able to discover and disrupt attempted Ottoman ambushes. But above all

else, the Italian efforts showed that aircraft were robust and reliable Enough to be used in war. As the conflict dragged on into 1912, the Italians now looked not to the air, but to the sea to bring the conflict to an end. As the war expanded, it inevitably clashed with the interests of the other European great powers. The first targets of the Italian naval strategy to defeat the Ottomans were in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aiden. Italy had already attacked Ottoman ports in the area in fall 1911, but in January 1912, the Italian Navy

sank several Ottoman ships and delivered weapons to rebellious anti-toman groups in Yemen and Arabia. In February, Italian and Ottoman ships fought a pitched naval battle in Beirut Harbor, resulting in a decisive Italian victory and 66 Beirut residents killed. In April 1912, the Italians also sent a flatillaa to the Dardinel Straits, a vital international shipping lane, giving access to the Ottoman capital of Constantinople. Following some inconclusive duels between the Italian navy and Ottoman shore batteries, the Ottomans closed and mined the straits to prevent a threat to the capital. This drew the attention of Britain and especially

Russia, whose economy depended on shipping passing through the dinels. This put pressure on both the Italians and the Ottomans. But in the end, it was the Ottomans who were forced to reopen the straits to shipping. AustriaHungary was also Worried about the war since they wanted to keep the status quo in the Balkans which was also enshrined in the triple alliance with Germany and Italy. If the Ottomans lost too badly, the Balkans might erupt. The Ottomans though were not able to take advantage of the divisions among the Europeans. The empire was diplomatically isolated and the young

Turk regime was badly divided between those who were still loyal to the Sultan and those who supported the Revolutionary committee of union and progress. In 1911 and 1912, there were three different grand vizers and three different foreign ministers. But despite the political risks, Italian leadership still felt in May 1912 that naval operations were the key to victory. So much so that operations in Libya were suspended in favor of a series of amphibious landings on Turkeykey's doorstep. The Italian command now turned to the Ottomans island possessions in The East Mediterranean. If they took roads and the

Dodic, Ottoman routes to Libya and naval operations would be further reduced. Admiral Calorare was also thinking of the diplomatic advantages as early as October 1911. I think it might be useful for us in the current war to occupy some part of the Ottoman Empire that will compel them to accept peace. Unfortunately, we do not have a free hand and so we cannot act for example on the west coast of the Balkan Peninsula or by forcing the dinels go to Constantinople. But we can take some island as a bargaining counter at least. Strategically, the island of

roads would be most valuable. This was another risky move since the islands were covered by the same triple alliance status quo agreement as the Balkans. The Italians tried to calm Austrian fears and eventually AustriaHungary agreed to a temporary Occupation of the islands. And the Austrians only allowed even that under pressure from Germany, who wanted to strengthen the Triple Alliance before it came up for renewal in 1912. Between April 28th and May 21st, 1912, the Italians seized 13 Ottoman islands in the Ajian with nearly no opposition except on roads. The Italian gamble worked since the occupation

of the islands increased Ottoman internal divisions between those who wanted to Continue the struggle and those who wanted a negotiated peace. So, in the summer of 1912, it seemed there might be a road to the peace table, but there were obstacles. The Italians were reluctant to compromise and had already announced Libyan annexation, while the Ottomans expected major concessions since they had not yet been fully defeated. Russian-led peace talks began in May, but failed. And so, a new round of talks began in Switzerland in June. The Ottomans were willing to accept Libya becoming an independent state

within an Italian zone of occupation. Italian demands though were far more substantial. So the Swiss talks also fell through. One Italian diplomat put the blame on his Turkish counterpart. The Ottoman delegate had in his baggage only one word, autonomy. But internal pressure in Italy was also growing. The war was becoming less popular, especially among the working Classes, and rumors of talks increased demands for peace. Italian soldiers were also tired of the war, and there was unrest in the trenches and even desertions. The fact that the war was costing Italy 47% of its total expenditure was

also helping to turn the formerly pro-war newspapers against it. On July 18th, the Italians tried one last action to force the Ottomans to the negotiating table. Five specially camouflaged Italian torpedo boats snuck Into the dinels to attack the Turkish fleeted anchor, not unlike the Italian motorboat attacks against the Austrahungarian Navy. A few years later, Ottoman sentries spotted them and drove them away, but the Italian press exaggerated the raid to make it sound like a bold strike against the heart of the enemy state. Journalist Jeppe Bevonyi was not present during the attack, but waxed poetic. The

water boiled around the torpedo boats from Stem to stern, and jets of water flew high as shells fell with horrible thuds, as if volcanic eruptions were flashing inexhaustibly beneath the water. The air was full of flashes of flames, explosions, and splinters, convulsive, foaming, full of glare and reflections. The sea seemed to become a huge fiery furnace, but at the zenith shan always the star of Italy. The Dardinell's raid marked the height of Italian naval adventures and peace talks Started up again in August. The new Ottoman government under Gazim Mutar Pashar was willing to negotiate partly

because of pressure from other powers and the outbreak of the first Balkan war in early October. The Ottomans still wanted to avoid any peace deal that gave the impression that they'd abandon the Libyan Arabs since that might cause problems in other Arab regions of the empire. The peace treaty ending the Italurkish War was signed on October 18th, 1912. The Ottomans declared Libya independent to avoid accepting Italian sovereignty over it, but they would not object when Italy then declared that sovereignty. The Sultan would continue to be recognized as the religious head of Libyan Muslims. The Italians

promised to return the Aian islands and pay some reparations. The other European powers quickly recognized Italian control over Libya. So Italy had won the Italo Turkish war And taken Libya from the Ottoman Empire. When peace was announced, the Italian elites like popular contemporary historian Chesar Koza were overjoyed. Praise be to God. We are no longer nothing. We are an old people that has found its youth and strength. We are a great nation. The majority of Italians were less enthusiastic. The war had not brought the impressive victory that they'd been promised and proved costly in blood

and Treasure. 3,500 Italians had died, mostly from disease, and 4,250 were wounded. The victory did little to improve Italy's military reputation with the other great powers, and its new possession was not easy to govern. Libyan Arabs would go on to resist Italian rule for years, and the Italian authorities brutally repressed them in response. Italy would also refuse to give up the Aian islands on the grounds of the increased costs of the Libyan Occupation. For the Ottomans, losing their last African province reinforced their reputation as the so-called sick man, but they managed to save some face

with the complicated arrangement in Libya. And losing control of the region actually improved their finances. They suffered a similar number of military killed and wounded as the Italians despite Italian military superiority. The suffering of the Libyan people was however significant and special refugee Offices were set up in Constantinople for those fleeing Italian repression. The Italurkish War was the last typical 19th century Imperial small war, but it also hinted at what was to come in 1914. It featured trenches, machine guns, airplanes. The first tactical use of armored cars, Italian torpedo boat attacks, and a stalemate. Though

actual combat was not comparable to the First World War, the war also saw a guerilla force successfully resist a larger and More powerful conventional force, which obligated the stronger power to seek victory by means other than a decisive battle. In fact, the very same Senosi Arabs would also fight with the Ottomans in 1914 to 1918. The war in the air influenced military thought. In fact, the war was referenced in the founding charter of the British Royal Flying Corps. And of course, the Dardinels would also be a key objective of the British in 1915. The Italo

Turkish War, just as Austria had feared, did indeed destabilize the Balkans and helped bring about the Balkan Wars. Goliti himself had worried about just such a scenario in 1911. The integrity of the Ottoman Empire is a condition for Europe's balance and peace. Is it truly in Italy's interest to shatter into pieces one of the cornerstones of the old building? And what if after we attack Turkey, the Balkans move as well? And what if a Balkan war causes a clash among the groups of powers and a European war? Could we take upon ourselves the responsibility for

igniting the gunpowder? The Italo Turkish War alone did not start the First World War, but it was one of the sparks that lit the long fuse of 1914. Just as the Italians were completing their conquest of Ottoman Libya, Constantinople's lands in the Balkans Come under attack as well. For centuries, the Ottoman Empire controlled the multithnic and multi-religious Balkan Peninsula. But the 19th century brought dramatic change. As the empire grew weaker and nationalism among the Balkan peoples grew stronger, new states emerged. Montenegro, Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria gained first informal and later formal independence. This did

not happen without bloodshed, including uprisings, Ottoman repression, Independence wars, and great power intervention to protect their own interests. The decisive Russian victory in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 ensured the independence of the Balkan states but also provoked the suspicions of the other powers by creating a large and Russia friendly Bulgaria. A concerned AustriaHungary occupied Ottoman Bosnia and Herzgoina and the Sanjac of Novi Pazar in 1878 and Britain worried that Russia might get too close To the Turkish straits. So the powers met in Berlin to modify the borders of the preliminary piece of San Stefano to

limit Russian influence. They returned most of Macedonia to the Ottomans, which angered Bulgarian leaders like Ivan Gishov. When we read the agreement in which a short-sighted diplomacy in Berlin partitioned our homeland, we were left crushed and thunder struck. Was such an injustice possible? Could such an injustice be reversed? The peace of 1878 did not stabilize the region as no state was satisfied with the resulting borders. Serbia and Bulgaria even fought a brief war in 1885 as did Greece and the Ottomans in 1897. By the start of the 20th century, local and great power tensions in

the Balkans were running high. The new states hoped to expand their territory at the expense of the Ottomans and each other. And the great powers were still nervous about the balance of power in the region. AustriaHungary worried that Serbia was a danger since some in Serbia also wanted closer ties with their fellow Serbs and other South Slavs in the dual monarchy and Serbia had close relations with Russia. Russia was glad to have new allies in the Balkans and wanted access to the Turkish straits but worried that someone else might get their hands on Constantinople if

the Ottomans collapsed completely. The Ottoman Empire was in a state of crisis externally and Internally. Its defeats had cost it much of its European lands and brought violent instability at home. 1908 though would be a decisive year. The Young Turk Revolution in July brought a fresh constitution and a desire to modernize the empire and army, create a stronger Ottoman identity and preserve Ottoman territories, in particular Macedonia. But in October, AustriaHungary shook the Balkans and Europe by annexing Bosnia after 30 years of occupation and Withdrawing from Novi Pazar. Russia was outraged and Bulgaria used the opportunity

to sever all formal ties to the Ottomans. The result was more international tension and more chaos in Constantinople. Conservative forces tried to overthrow the new Ottoman constitution in 1909 which led to a counter coup, yet another constitution and a new Sultan Mehmed V. The next year even formal control of Cree was lost and Albanians revolted in favor of more Autonomy with Montenegron support. The Balkan states also had their share of problems with Serbia and Greece suffering coups of their own and all nations having difficulty exerting political control over their influential and nationalistic military leadership. While

the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire were in turmoil, in 1911, Italy decided the time was right to expand its empire. Traditionally, Britain, France, and more recently, Germany had supported the Ottoman Empire to prevent a total collapse. But now, they allowed Italy to attack and occupy Ottoman Libya and the Dodic Islands. The Italo Turkish War of 1911 12 ended with defeat for the Ottomans who tried to limit their losses at the negotiating table. But the Balkan states had been watching closely and planned to take advantage of Ottoman troubles with Russian encouragement. The Serbian and Bulgarian governments

began alliance talks in fall 1911, just after The Italo Turkish War began. And in March 1912, they agreed on a defensive alliance, which changed to an offensive alliance in May. Soon after, Montenegro and Greece joined with separate agreements, and the Balkan League was born. The League resolved to make war on the Ottoman Empire to gain what they felt were lands that belonged to their peoples. But they had conflicting claims. They all said dated back to medieval times. Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece wanted Macedonia, while Bulgaria and Greece both wanted Thrace. Montenegro and Serbia wanted the Sanjac

of Novi Pazar, the area around the port of Scutari on the Adriatic and Kosovo. The Albanians hoped for autonomy, which would also include Scutari and Kosovo. In most of these regions, the mix of nationalities and religions did not align with political plans. Turks, Albanians, Bulgarians, Serbs, Montenegrans, Greeks, Jews, and other Groups all lived in communities that overlapped over the centuries. The League wanted to take territory from the Ottomans, but made few formal agreements on how it would be divided. Serbia and Bulgaria agreed on how to divide part of Macedonia, but part was considered a disputed

zone that could be assigned after the war with Russian arbitration. So, the Balkan League determined to make war on the Ottomans without a clear postwar plan to divide the spoils. But First, they would have to defeat the Ottoman army, just as the Italians had done. The first Balkan War began on October 8th, 1912 when Montenegro attacked the Ottomans ahead of schedule to get the jump on rival Serbia. The rest of the Balkan League members quickly gave the Ottomans a pro- former ultimatum. Hardpressed Ottoman Grand Vizier Ahmed Mutar Pasha wanted to save the peace and even

demobilized part of the Ottoman Third Army in Thrace. But The influential young Turk party called the Committee for Union and Progress wanted to fight. The empire was again at the brink of civil war, but declared war on the Balkan League on October 16th. Most European observers expected that the Ottomans would win. The Empire's population of 24 million was more than twice the league's combined 10 million, and on paper, the Ottomans could field 600,000 men. The regular troops also had gained experience fighting the Italians And rebels in Albania and Macedonia. But the Ottomans also faced problems.

Many of their best officers like Mustafa Kimal and Enverbe were stuck in Libya and the reserve troops were badly trained and equipped with a mishmash of weaponry. The Ottoman Navy was weak and the army only had 315,000 men in Europe. The Balkan League could count on 825,000 soldiers, 350,000 Bulgarians, 230,000 Serbs, 200,000 Greeks, and 45,000 Montenegrons. Most of the soldiers were peasant conscripts equipped with a variety of European weapons including French and German artillery and a few observation aircraft. The Greek Navy with 16 destroyers and an armored cruiser ensured control of the Aian Sea. When

the great powers issued a statement on October 10th saying that they wanted to keep the territorial status quo if it came to war, what they really meant was they would not allow the Ottomans to Expand if they won. All over the Balkans, families saw their young men off to the front, including Bulgarian Netu Kablashkov's 21-year-old son, Anton. By noon, Anton's chest was overflowing with flowers from well-wishers, and we sent him off to the train station. On the way, we ran into a crippled Greek. This meeting was a bad omen. I feared that my son would

also be crippled. I wanted us to go back, but I didn't want to discourage him, so we Continued on towards the station. In eastern Thrace, three Bulgarian armies faced the Ottoman first army. The Ottomans thought the Bulgarians would move on Macedonia. So that's where they had most of their troops. But the Bulgarians instead send the bulk of their units towards the fortress towns of Adne and Kilis, also known as Adrianople and Loenrad on the road to Constantinople. Bulgarian troops surrounded the Ottoman garrison Nadier And Bulgarian deputy commander-in-chief Mikail Savu said that he was ready to

sacrifice 100,000 men to storm it. The Bulgarians did not storm the fortress, but young Anton was killed just outside its walls. East of Adne Ottoman First Army Commander Abdullah Pasha thought he outnumbered the enemy. So he sent his troops forward in a hasty advance on October 21st. At the battle of Kirk Kilis, the outnumbered Ottomans fought for 3 days before the Bulgarians broke Their lines. The Bulgarians could probably have completely smashed the Ottoman army if they had pursued them, but instead they rested while the Ottomans rushed in reinforcements and restored discipline. Ottoman senior officer Mutar

Pasha reflected on the disaster. The causes of our defeat are to be found in our bad military organization and in the lack of discipline of our reserveists. But the principal cause was The rain which had continued for a week completely destroying the morale of our army and for 3 days rendering impassible the roads and fields to our trains and artillery. On the 29th, the Bulgarians attacked the fresh Ottoman defensive positions at Lulier Burgas. At first, the Ottomans were able to hold the line, but when their logistics couldn't furnish the guns with enough shells, the Bulgarians

again defeat them thanks to determined infantry attacks and superior Artillery. Each side suffered 20,000 killed and wounded in the largest battle in Europe between 1871 and 1914. On November 2nd, reeling Ottoman forces retreated to the Chatalia line just 30 km from the imperial capital of Constantinople. The Ottoman government requested an armistice, but Bulgarian Sar Ferdinand refused and did not inform his allies. On November 17th, the Bulgarians tried to break through the Chatal Jaline and fulfilled Sar Ferdinand's dream of reaching the old Byzantine capital. But fierce Ottoman resistance, stretched logistics, and a Kolera outbreak stopped them.

Still, with Bulgarian advances on land and the Greek navy off the coast, Ottoman forces in the rest of the Balkans had been cut off. Some of the towns and villages captured by Bulgarian troops in Thrace were populated by Bulgarians, many of whom considered themselves liberated. Elena Bija later recalled when Bulgarian Irregulars, among them poet Pu Yavarov, entered her town. When the people entered the church, they took off their fezes and held them in their hands. And Yavarov sat on the priest's chair and began speaking. He said we were free and that we needn't fear Turkish

prisons anymore. Then he asked, "What will you do with those fezes?" And they all tossed them to the ground and trampled them. It was like they were taking out all their anger at the Turks on those Fezes. Meanwhile, in Macedonia, Serbian forces came up against Ottoman resistance quicker than General Radir Putnik expected at Kumanovo. The Serbs outnumbered the Ottoman Vardar army 100,000 to 58,000. But the Ottomans under Zaki Pasha launched the first attacks on October 23rd. In the driving rain and mud, the Serbs counterattacked at great cost, which observers compared to the Japanese attacks in

the Russo-Japanese war. But the firepower of Modern artillery and machine guns meant soldiers dig trenches and foxholes to keep out of harm's way. Serbian medical was in the midst of the fighting. I look out of the trench and see a wounded man on the parapit. I shout to him, but he doesn't hear me. He's hit again and faints. Some men carry him in, and blood is gushing from his neck. I wrap one bandage, then another. We get him onto a stretcher, but the man dies. In the end, the Serbian artillery Carried the day, and the

Serbs won the battle of Kumanovo. The victory earned Putnik the title of Vueoda, left the Serbs in possession of the part of Macedonia disputed with the Bulgarians and routed the Ottomans who fled to the south. Another result was chaos amongst the local Muslim population and many dead and wounded on both sides. Radovich was at the train station a day after the battle. In the morning, we went down to the train station in Kumanovo. captured Turks, the Turkish people, women, children, everything was crowded there. The trains were not running. One freight train was full of wounded

and another full of dead Turks. Blood dripped from the wagon onto the rails. The Serbs pursued and pushed the Ottomans back at the battles of Plep and Monier. While the Ottomans withdrew to southern Albania, the Serbs also move forces west towards Scutari and the Adriatic coast where they join Montenegron forces Besieging the town. In the north, the Serbs also capture the Sanjac of Novi Pazar and the town of Pizen which the Montenegrons had wanted. Serbian troops also enter Kosovo, but face resistance from local Albanians. In the south, the Greek army of Thesali made straight for

Salonica. Greece was also interested in Macedonia, but they prioritized the drive for Salonica to reach it before the Bulgarians could. Greek troops pushed the Ottomans aside at Salantapuros Pass and with more difficulty at Yanitar. The way to Salonica was open and the Greek army surrounded the city. On November 7th, a Bulgarian division rushed south and the commander sent a message ahead asking the Ottomans to surrender to him instead of to the Greeks. But it was too late. The Ottoman commander replied that he only had one Salonica and he had surrendered it to the Greeks on

November 8th. This was a critical league victory As Ottoman forces were now completely cut off from any hope of reinforcement. It was also a personal tragedy for Ottoman officer Mustafa Kimal as it was his hometown and fueled his anger at Constantinople. Then one day I heard my homeland Salonica, my mother, my sister, my relatives and acquaintances were handed over to the enemy by the very Ottoman leadership who expelled me for unveiling the truth about them. Kimal also said That he would have fired every Ottoman officer above the rank of major. After taking Salonica, Greek and

Bulgarian troops began an uneasy joint presence in the city. In the west, Greek troops also made progress and besieged the Ottoman fortress at Yanina. As the Balkan League armies advanced, the Christian and Muslim civilian populations suffered from atrocities committed by all sides. This was made worse by the presence of irregular Forces of locals who supported their countrymen's armies, but also blurred the line between soldiers and non-combatants for enemy troops. Some Christians turned on Muslim officials who had repressed them in the past or on Muslim and sometimes Christian land owners before seizing their lands. A British

journalist with the Bulgarian army reported the track of the Bulgarian army in Thrace is marked by 80 mi of ruined Villages. Greek commander Crown Prince Constantine ordered Muslim villages destroyed since he claimed that Muslims were shooting at his troops. and Greek soldier Stratis Mirais later included his experience in his writing. All male prisoners in the village were to be executed. I was opposite an old Turk. His grandfatherly face was bruised. He whispered prayers and his silky beard moved in the wind. I pulled the trigger and he fell into the Mud like he was struck by

lightning. After the executions, we set the village on fire. Suddenly, a frenzied crowd rushed over. Children and women freed from the mosque where we had imprisoned them. They run to the corpses screaming to look for their loved ones. This memory lives and circulates inside me like an anguished virus. Constantinople was filled with hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees with the old city turned into a camp including The famous blue mosque and the Haga Sophia mosque turned into a kalera hospital. The British consulate at Salonica was blunt. The result of the massacre of Muslims at the

beginning of the war, of the looting of their goods in the ensuing months, of the settling of Christians in their villages, of their persecution by Christian neighbors, of their torture and beating by Greek troops, has been the creation of a state of terror Amongst the Islamic population. Their one desire is to escape from Macedonia and to be again in a free land. The powers sent warships to Constantinople to protect the city's Christian population from what they feared might be revenge killings by Muslims. In just a few weeks, the Balkan League had put together a string

of decisive victories. Nearly all of Ottoman Europe was now under their control, except for The fortresses of Adne, Yanina, and Scutari. As a result of the Ottoman collapse, an Albanian group supported by Austria and Italy declared independence on November 28th, 1912. On December 3rd, the Ottomans signed an armistice with Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Serbia. But Greek military operations continued. So, the Balkan League was victorious on all fronts. But despite the armistice, the war was not over, and the great powers were on the cusp of getting involved Themselves. Even though the Ottoman armies were beaten in the

field and the fleet was bottled up by the stronger Greek navy, militarily the empire might have had a chance to recover, it still held important fortresses. It was holding on the Chatalia line, had more reserves in Asia, and the Balkan League was divided over the possible spoils. But the Ottomans had no allies. This time the great powers would not support the Empire as they had in the past. And even Germany declared that the war was quote a free fight with no favor. The powers now said that they would go back on their declaration about the

territorial status quo and accept border changes in favor of the League. Even Austrohungarian foreign minister Leopold Vertold said that Vienna would not oppose Serbian expansion except for an Adriatic port. Russia was now worried that the Bulgarians might actually get To Constantinople before them, and so they urged restraint. The events in the Balkans had also pushed Europe to the brink of war. On November 21st, AustriaHungary acted to, in its view, prevent Serbia from permanently occupying the Adriatic coast. Vienna mobilized six army corps, three facing the Balkans and three facing Russia. Kaiser secretly assured the Austrians that

if Russia mobilized, Germany would support Austria just as he would do Again in July 1914. In response to the Austrian moves, the Sar held a meeting with his war council and the army drew up plans for a partial mobilization. But the council decided not to mobilize, partly out of fear of provoking Germany and partly because some ministers didn't want to risk war over Serbian access to the sea. The German government did not know how close the Russians had come to mobilizing when they held their own infamous war council meeting on December 8th. Chief of the

general staff Mulke felt that Germany should declare war now before Russia got any stronger. But in the end, the council decided against it. Following the war scare and December armistice, two parallel conferences took place in London on December 16th and 17th, 1912. At the first conference, Ottoman delegate Rashid Pasha said that his government would give up Macedonia and Salonica, but not Edierne, eastern Thrace or the four islands at the mouth Of the Dardinels that Greece was demanding. The Ottomans also insisted on an independent Albania rather than it being split between the Serbs, Montenegrons, and Greeks.

The Bulgarians made a new demand for Adne to compensate for the lands that they might lose to the Serbs. But this was a particular sticking point because the fortress city was important for the safety of Constantinople. Rashid Pasha put it simply to the Bulgarian representative. Edne is a window into our haram. The Greeks and Bulgarians argued over who would get Salonica while the Serbs and Bulgarians argued over Macedonia. Meanwhile, at the separate great powers conference, the main topic was the borders of Albania of critical importance for AustriaHungary to limit Serbian power. But events in Constantinople

overtook diplomacy. On January 23rd, 1913, a young Turk government took power again after yet Another coup and the murder of war minister Nazim Pasha. Supported by influential Turkish officers like Enverbe, many of whom came from the Balkan lands that were now lost, they decided to continue the war to prevent the loss of Thrace. New Ottoman foreign minister Nuradunan Ephendi was defiant. If Adne continues to resist, we shall fight to relieve her. If Adne falls, we shall fight to retake her. Ottoman troops, including Mustafa Kimal, landed On Gallipoli on February 7th. And at first, they pushed

the Bulgarians back around Bullayer, but the Bulgarians rallied and the Ottoman attack failed with a loss of 6,000 dead to just 114 Bulgarians. Elsewhere, the Greeks took Yanina on March 6th. And the Bulgarians and Serbians finally captured Adne on March 26th. French journalist Gustav Siri described the state of the people in the starving city. It was like a scene out of a fantastic Tale to see these human rags with protruding teeth devouring a sword of bread, black lava in which the barely ground seeds fell out in yellow spots. Those who did not get their share

of the fought over morsels watched the others savor them with envious tears in their eyes. Atqutari, Serbian troops arrived to help the Montenegrrons who ignored warnings from the great powers and assaulted the city. A combined fleet of the powers Blockaded Montenegro, causing the Serbs to leave. But the Montenegrons managed to take the city April 24th only to agree to give it up to a future independent Albania just days later. The Ottomans had no choice but to accept a peace deal and the belligerent signed the Treaty of London on May 30th, 1913, which reduced Ottoman Europe

to a small strip of land outside of Constantinople and created the Principality of Albania. The first Balkan War came to an end in May 1913, and the Ottoman Empire in Europe seemed to be a thing of the past. But the borders between the victorious Balkan League members are another matter altogether. Even before the first Balkan War had come to an end, further conflict was brewing. Not only did the Balkan League members dispute where the new borders would be, but Romania had also begun to make demands for southern de Brua, which was part of Bulgaria. In

May 1913, the Powers awarded the town of Celistra to Romania, which angered both sides and made some Bulgarians doubt Russia as a reliable ally. Bulgarians were also frustrated because in their view, they'd won the strategically important Thrace battles, but the Serbs were left in possession of most of Macedonia and didn't want to honor the pre-war agreement. Bulgaria and Greece were also still in conflict over Salonica. Russia tried to mediate between Serbia and Bulgaria, but the two rivals could not agree, and the Russians were still nervous about Bulgarian troops so close to Constantinople. The Bulgarian army

was in a fragile state, as many soldiers were exhausted from the war, and some were willing to split Macedonia with their allies if it meant peace. General Savo told the government to either send the men home or go to war. Now, without strong Russian backing, Sophia feared it might lose Macedonia for good. So, that Tsar ordered an attack against Serbia and Greece on June 29th, although it's not clear how much the government knows about this before the shooting starts. The second Balkan war had begun. The Bulgarian prime minister tried to stop the fighting in Macedonia,

but it was too late. The Greeks and Serbs could claim that Bulgaria was the aggressor and agreed to divide Macedonia between themselves. Montenegro also joined to stay in Serbia's good graces. On the Bulgarian side, the sudden attack had confused communication and hampered operations. Their attack was uncoordinated and the Serbs eventually stopped it and defeated the Bulgarians at Balnitsa. By July 8th, the Greeks defeated a smaller Bulgarian army around Kilkis and Doan around the same time and eliminated isolated Bulgarian units at Salonica. Bulgarian Mikail Majaru's son was killed in the fighting. I lost my very last

hope. From that moment forth, I became a man haunted by grief. All around me seemed to go dark. All the misery and all the sorrow of Bulgaria appeared to me to be twice as great. Each and every object in my home served as a reminder to me of my lost happiness. On July 11th, Greek and Serb forces met and the front stabilized. Retreating Bulgarians attacked Greek, Turkish, and Serbian civilians. And advancing Greek and Serbian troops committed atrocities Against Bulgarian civilians again after claims of attacks against their own troops. Turkish civilian Ibosha felt empathy for Bulgarian

refugees. A Bulgarian peasant was leading a scrawny donkey on the wooden saddle of which sat a child, her bare legs dangling on one side. The misery, the look of a dread and utter agony in the small blinking eyes of the pockmarked face with the yellow straggly beard were the very embodiment of human fear and despair. No, not human. It was the animal dread of cattle at the slaughterhouse, the wild glassy stare of terror in a cornered animal. It was a look which once perceived made one cringe with shame and humiliation. The shame of its having

been in a human eye. Meanwhile, Romania saw its chance and entered the war on July 10th to take all of southern de Brua. A quarter of a million Romanian troops of the army of the Danube entered Bulgaria and moved Towards Sophia. The Bulgarians decided not to offer organized resistance. Advancing Romanian troops, however, rode straight into a cholera epidemic due to unsanitary conditions. Chaplain Dumitrues complained bitterly about the army's lack of medical care. In the hospital, there are no beds, so the men lie on the floor in their uniforms. They've barely the strength to moan or

ask for water. Some are delirious with spasmotic movements of their arms and Hands. Some vomit onto the floor while others relieve themselves where they lay. The lack of furniture, dishes, linens, medical devices, medicine, and antiseptic rendered the presence of army doctors useless. I've seen a lot of messes, but this one topped them all. About 2,700 Romanian soldiers die of chalera in summer 1913. Now, the Ottomans saw their opportunity to recover parts of Thrace, so they crossed the Chatalia line on July 12th. The few Bulgarian troops left in the area could offer only token resistance, and

the Ottomans recaptured the fortress of Adib without firing a shot on July 23rd. Many Bulgarian civilians fled, creating a new wave of refugees, and another outbreak of Kalera killed 4,000 Ottoman troops. As Romanian troops got closer to Sophia and Russia refused to intervene to help Bulgaria, the pro-Russian Bulgarian government resigned. It was Replaced by a pro-German government under Vaselados Slavu. But fighting continued. Bulgarian forces recovered to win a defensive battle against the Serbs and Montenegrons at Calimmansi and a successful counterattack against the Greeks at Cresna Gorge. The Greeks asked for an armistice and Sophia ordered

a stop to operations since even a Bulgarian victory could not reverse the tide of the war. The peace treaties signed in August and September 1913 Ended the second Balkan War and redrew the map of the Balkans yet again. This time to Bulgaria's disadvantage. Romania got southern de Bruja. AustriaHungary and Russia refused to support Serbian maximalist demands in Macedonia so they could retain some influence with Bulgaria. Serbia did get most of Macedonia but Bulgaria kept apart and Greece kept Salonica. The Ottomans regained eastern Thrace despite their defeat in the first war. The Balkan wars Left a

lasting impact on the region and Europe as a whole. The fighting and the Kolera were deadly. 125,000 Ottoman soldiers died along with 65,000 Bulgarians, 36,000 Serbs, 9,500 Greeks, and 3,000 Montenegrits. After more than 600 years, the Ottoman presence in the Balkans was nearly gone. Albania was independent, but its neighbors claimed its territory, and many Balkan Christians saw the change as the end of foreign domination and oppression. For More than 300,000 Balkan Muslims, however, the changes meant expulsion from their homes and an uncertain future in Anatolia. And for some young Turks, it meant radicalization against Christians

still within the empire. and Ver Pasha who hailed from the Balkans and would later play a key role in the Armenian genocide and the killing of Ottoman Greeks in the First World War shared his anger. How could anyone forget the plains, the meadows watered With the blood of our forefathers? Abandoned those places where Turkish raiders had stalled their steeds for a full 400 years with our mosques, our tombs, our dervish lodges, our bridges, and our castles to leave them to our slaves to be driven out of the Balkans to Anatolia. This is beyond a man's

endurance. I am prepared to sacrifice gladly the remaining years of my life to take revenge on the Bulgarians, the Greeks and the Montenegrrons. The events of 191213 helped to create the conditions for the catastrophe of 1914 as well. Bulgarian resentment at the lack of support from Russia caused it to drift closer to AustriaHungary and Germany. and tensions between AustriaHungary and a much larger Serbia also increased. With Serbia as Russia's only remaining Balkan ally, Russia would be under more pressure to support Serbia in any future conflict. And in October 1913, Austria issued an ultimatum to Serbia

with German support to force Belgrade to remove its troops from northern Albania. A similar ultimatum in 1914 would transform the Third Balkan War into the Great War. Throughout the Balkan Wars, AustriaHungary felt itself in the grip of an Albanian crisis. The flare-ups between Serbia and Austria lasted from late 1912 until late 1913 and stemmed from Vienna's fear that a victorious Serbia might get access to the Adriatic Sea. Vienna therefore Supported the Albanian movement against Ottoman rule, which declared independence in November 1912. At the same time though, Serb and Montenegron troops had moved into what was

now Albanian claimed territory during the first Balkan War when it was still controlled by the Ottomans. When Serb troops captured the town of Pizaren, they accused Austrohungarian consul Oscar Prohaskca of unfriendly activity, setting off the Prohaskca affair. Vienna Then demanded justice. So Belgrade apologized and their army performed a ceremony to honor Prohaskca and restore Austrohungarian prestige. In January 1913, with tensions over Serbia and Albania high, Russia and AustriaHungary moved up reinforcements along their border and St. Petersburg threatened to mobilize. This cost both countries huge amounts of money, leading to some talk that war now might

be better than expensive military posturing. AustriaHungary also spent money increasing explosive production, buying horses for the army, and preparing the telegraph network for wartime needs. Grand Dukes Nicholas and Peter, both of whom had Montenegron wives, led a strengthening war party in Russia. In March, the two sides stood down, but the Belgian ambassador to Russia, noted the influence of the Russian hawks. All the pacifism of the emperor cannot silence those at court who claimed the Impossibility of recoiling ever again before Austria. Meanwhile, Serbian Prime Minister Nicolola Pashich promised the country would not seek access to the

sea, but Vienna remained suspicious. In April, they forced the Serbs to withdraw most of their troops, besieging the port of Scutari alongside the Montenegrrons. AustroHungarian chief of staff France Conrad from Hutzendorf continued to make his case for preventive war against Serbia. I keep returning to the idea that we must risk a big war or a war against Serbia. In October 1913, Vienna issued an ultimatum to Belgrade to withdraw all forces from Albania or face the possibility of war. The Serbs withdrew most of their troops and the crisis passed. But the long Albanian crisis of 1912

1913 continued the pattern of brinksmanship between Austria, Hungary, Russia and Serbia and it normalized diplomacy by threat of war. The string of crises that lasted more than a decade along with increasing political and social tensions caused a growing anxiety among many Europeans. And the danger that they might lead to war was heightened by increasing militarization. As the great powers expanded their empires and worried about rivals, they also built up their military capability and political Alliances. Germany's expansion and naval buildup provoked reactions from the other powers. The UK responded by building even more warships, including the

new Dreadnot class. Meanwhile, Austria, Hungary, and Russia clashed over influence in the Balkans, where new independent states had largely replaced the weakened Ottoman Empire with Russian help. By 1914, a system of alliances bound most of the great powers to each other, for better or for worse. France And Russia had been allies since 1894 and the triple alliance connected Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Italy. Britain had maintained a policy of splendid isolation for most of the 19th century. But its fear of German naval expansion brought it closer to the FrancoRussian block to create the triple on. The

danger of such alliances was that a conflict involving one or two powers was more likely to drag all of them into a European war. Germany felt surrounded by potential enemies. So it tried to test on taunt resolve during two diplomatic crises in Morocco in 1905 and 1911. The British and French held firm but there was no war which angered German chief of staff Helm Fan Mul. If we again slip away from this Moroccan affair with our tail between our legs, and if we cannot bring ourselves to put forward a determined claim, which we are prepared

to force through with the Sword, I shall despair of the future of the German Empire. I shall then resign, but before handing in my resignation, I shall move to abolish the army and to place ourselves under Japanese protectorate. We shall then be in a position to make money without interference and develop into nine. [Music] Germany's worries about its situation in Europe caused its government to shift priority from the navy, which had Angered Britain, back to the army, which caused France and Russia to expand their armies. To many in Berlin, it seemed that time was on

the Anton's side, and Germany's chances would be better if war came sooner rather than later. Historians still debate whether Germany's assertiveness or Franco British refusal to share international power played a greater role in increasing tensions. While great power alliances hardened across Europe, more Trouble was brewing in the Balkans. The Austrohungarian annexation of Bosnia from the Ottomans in 1908 upset Russia and angered Serbian nationalists who wanted closer ties with South Slav populations in AustriaHungary. Russia then supported the independent Slav states in the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 in which Serbia gained more territory. Tensions between

AustriaHungary and Russia rose sharply over the Serb issue and got even worse When Austrian counterintelligence officer Alfred was exposed as a Russian spy in 1913. Long-term causes of the war, like imperial competition or military alliances, didn't mean that war was inevitable. For a full-on war to break out, a crisis had to come that would force governments to decide for war. On June 28th, 1914, South Slav nationalist Gabriel Princip assassinated Austrian Archduke France Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Savo. Those shots triggered the July crisis. Following the killings, AustriaHungary blamed Serbia. Most historians agree today there

was some semiofficial Serbian involvement in the crime, although whether Serbian Prime Minister Nicolapic and the rest of his government knew about the plot is hotly debated. In any case, in 1914, there was no proof of Serbian government involvement. The assassination itself did not bring about War directly. AustriaHungary was disappointed that other European governments did not condemn the killings more forcefully. A view shared by the German ambassador to Russia, Friedri Vonportales. Not only in the press, but also in society, one meets almost only with unfriendly judgments on the murdered arch duke. But the Serbian response was

the one that mattered most to AustriaHungary. Officially, Pashich issued condolences, but also claimed that the assassinations were an internal Austrohungarian issue. The Serbian investigation lasted only a week and found no evidence of government involvement. Serb nationalists and newspapers were less diplomatic. Some openly blamed the Austrohungarians themselves for the killings, while others praised the assassins. When the Austrohungarians complained, Pashes said that he had neither the tools nor the Inclination to censor the free Serbian press. Back in Vienna, the Imperial Council met to discuss their options. Chief of Staff France Conrad Fon Hudzenorf had argued forcefully for

war for years, and he wasn't alone. The foreign ministry was flooded with letters from Austrohungarian notables calling for an armed response. Bontok wrote on June 30th. Last year, I took the liberty of writing to say that we would have to learn how To tolerate Serbian impertinances without resorting to war. Now, the matter has acquired an entirely different aspect. Conrad put it more bluntly. War, war, war. The Austrian government decided on a military response to punish Serbia and resolve the issue of greater Serb nationalism seen to be destabilizing the empire. The war was meant to be

local and quick. But attacking Serbia meant Risking conflict with Russia and for Austria that was unthinkable without Germany's support. After the assassinations, the German ambassador to Vienna had urged restraint. But on July 6th, Kaiser Vilhelm made Germany's position clear by giving Austria the so-called blank check. Austrian ambassador Count Lasslo Serjini Marik reported the German promise to Vienna. The Kaiser authorized me to inform our gracious majesty that we might rely upon Germany's full support. If we had really recognized the necessity of warlike action against Serbia, Kaiser would regret if we did not make use of the

present moment, which is all in our favor. Wilhelm went on to say that he felt that Russia was not ready for war and if Austria did attack Serbia, it should do so as quickly as possible. So by early July, four outcomes seemed possible. a peaceful negotiated settlement, an Austroerbian war in the Balkans, a continental war involving Austria, Russia, Germany, and probably France, or a world war if Britain and its empire joined France and Russia. Only Austria, Hungary, and Russia had direct interests in the Balkans, but the system of European alliances would likely draw other states

in as well. However, neither the Triple Alliance nor the Tripolon taunt called for automatic participation in a war. Instead, each State had to decide how far they were willing to go. The Tripleon taunt powers generally preferred a negotiated settlement to the crisis. If war did break out, Britain and France favored limiting the war to the Balkans. Although Russia was more willing to accept a great power war over Serbia, Russia wanted to keep its reputation as protector of the Balkan Slavs and potentially expand its influence in the area around the Turkish straits that Were so important

to Russian trade and power projection. If it came to a great power war, France would support its ally in Russia and hope that Britain would join as well. In Britain, a major war was unpopular with the public, business circles, and some members of cabinet. Some politicians like foreign secretary Edward Gray reasoned that if a major war broke out, the outcome would be better for Britain if it joined Russia and France. If Germany and Austria defeated France and Russia, British interests and security would badly suffer. But there was still significant opposition in the UK. As far

as the Anton powers were concerned, a major war still seemed unlikely. Understanding Austrogerman intentions is trickier and historians still debate them. Their leaders saw little benefit in a negotiated settlement. It wouldn't resolve the issue of Serbian nationalism or improve Austria's position in the Balkans. The Best outcome would probably come from a localized Austro Serbian war. At the same time, launching such a war meant accepting the risk of a continental war against France and Russia and possibly Britain. Germany had made plans for war against France and Russia and felt that the longer it waited, the more

powerful Russia would become, and the greater the risk of defeat. Germany and Austria both decided to risk a European war against France and Russia to resolve the Serbian Issue in Austria's favor. If a general war came, victory would allow Germany to dominate the continent. The wild card, of course, was Britain. If the UK fought against them, an AustroGerman victory was much less likely and would amount to a worstc case scenario. So, in the face of rival alliances and conflicting goals and expectations, the great powers of Europe faced the July crisis of 1914. After Germany's blank

check to Austria on July 6th, AustriaHungary planned to Move quickly against Serbia. But that was easier said than done. On July 7th, the Austrohungarians planned their next step. Although many were eager for war, the government was not quite united. Hungarian Prime Minister Eastvan Tisa was at first hesitant. The Kingdom of Hungary already included many Serbs, and war with Serbia would only increase those tensions. Tissa insisted that AustriaHungary deliver an ultimatum to Serbia to give one last opportunity for Peace or to justify eventual military action. Crafting the ultimatum took time and Tissa only approved the final

text on July 19th. The ultimatum text was not the only delay. Many Austrohungarian troops were on leave for the harvest and mobilization would take 2 weeks. Internationally, the French president and prime minister arrived in St. Petersburg on July 20th for a scheduled meeting with the Russians. So if the Austrians gave the ultimatum to Serbia Before the French went home, Moscow and Paris might quickly develop a joint response. It's debated how much the French and Russians may have already known about the coming Austrian ultimatum, but they did use the meeting to portray an image of ironclad

unity. As President Remo Panker told the Russians, his primary concern was Britain. We shall have weighty matters to discuss. I am sure we shall agree on all Points. But there is one question which is very much on my mind. Our understanding with England. We must get her to come into our alliance. The Austrohungarians waited until the French leaders were at sea on July 23rd to send the ultimatum to the Serbs. Of the 10 demands, most concerned the arrest of Serbian officials and the suppression of anti-Habsburg propaganda. To carry this out, the Ultimatan demanded that Serbia

quote accept the Collaboration in Serbia of organs of the imperial and royal government of AustriaHungary. This was tantamount to surrendering Serbian sovereignty and the Austrians had deliberately drafted the ultimatum so the Serbs would have no choice but to reject it and war could then be declared. Belgrade replied within the 48-hour deadline and accepted all the points except for those contrary to the Serbian constitution like allowing Austrohungarian officials to prosecute Serbian citizens. The ultimatum triggered a wave of feverish diplomatic activity. The Anton powers now fully realized the seriousness of the crisis which had mostly been driven

behind closed doors in Vienna and Berlin until now. London, Paris, and St. Petersburg condemned the ultimatum although Britain suggested mediation talks including Britain, France, Germany and Italy but Berlin refused. Russo Austrian relations Were by now red hot. Russian foreign minister Serge Sisonov actually shouted at the Austrahungarian ambassador in a meeting. I know what it is. You want to make war on Serbia. The German newspapers have been egging you on. You are setting fire to Europe. It's a great responsibility you are taking on. You will see what effect this has in London and Paris and maybe

elsewhere too. The Tsar ordered partial mobilization of Four military districts on July 24th, followed by the period preparatory to war on the 26th. The Russian army began to call up reserveists, gather supplies, and promote officers. At the same time, the TAR wanted to make sure that these measures did not appear to be directed at Germany. So, AustriaHungary had a blank check from Germany and had made sure that its ultimatum to Serbia was unacceptable. On July 28th, 1914, AustriaHungary declared war on Serbia. The war was still a regional one, but that would all change in the

cascade of events in the coming days. In reality, partial Russian mobilization was an illusion. The general staff had no plans to partially mobilize, and Sar Nicholas's generals told him that partial mobilization would disrupt a potential full mobilization and still likely alarm the Germans. Military and political leaders of all powers were confronted with the same problem. If one Army mobilized, its neighbor would feel pressured to do the same or run the risk of an early defeat thanks to modern railways bringing enemy troops to the border within days. This dilemma gave the generals increased influence over the

crisis. On July 30th, after overcoming the lastminute nerves, the SAR announced full mobilization. All eyes now turn to Germany. From July 29th to August 1st, Sar Nicholas and Kaiser Vilhelm exchanged a series of urgent Telegrams, affectionately signing Nikki or Willie. The two cousins spoke of their affection for each other, but also issued demands. On July 30th, Willie wrote to Nikki, "I now receive authentic news of serious preparations for war on my eastern frontier. Responsibility for the safety of my empire forces preventive measures of defense upon me. My friendship for you and your empire, transmitted to

me by my grandfather on his deathbed, has Always been sacred to me, and I have honestly often backed up Russia. The peace of Europe may still be maintained by you if Russia will agree to stop the military measures which must threaten Germany and AustriaHungary. London now tried to mediate again, including a proposal for Austrohungarian forces to stop at Belgrade. On the 29th, German Chancellor Teobaltt Man asked Britain to stay neutral if Germany promised not to touch French Possessions. Foreign Secretary Edward Gray now desperately sought clarification from his own cabinet, twothirds of which had previously opposed

the war. Cabinet member John Burns summed up the decision. situation seriously reviewed from all points of view. It was decided not to decide. Britain still would not say if it would join the Anton in case of a general war. Hve was now unsure of British intentions And tried to rein in the Austrohungarians, including suggesting the halt in Belgrade plan. Meanwhile, the German chief of staff, Helmouth Fonmulke, was encouraging Conrad to attack. This led to Conrad explaining who actually rules in Berlin, Betman or Mult. But the Austrohungarians claimed it was now too late to change course

and a temporary occupation of Belgrade would not achieve their aims. Mult also began To push for Germany to mobilize since the German war plan depended on speed to avoid a two-front war. The Schlieffen plan called for German armies to first defeat France while Russia was still mobilizing, then shift the German troops to the east. If Russia was allowed to mobilize first, Germany would be at a disadvantage. The Germans had started preparing on July 28th. But on the 31st, Kaiser Vham announced pre-mobilization the GIFAs or state of threatening danger Of war. The decision led to another

flurry of telegrams. Germany demanded that Russia cease mobilization while simultaneously asking AustriaHungary to prepare for operations against Russia. The Germans also asked for French and British neutrality in a seemingly imminent Russo-German war. In Britain, a third royal cousin, King George, now called on the Tsar to end mobilization. Prime Minister Herbert Aswith recalled the Moment he presented a draft telegram to the king. The poor king was hauled from his bed and one of my strangest experiences was sitting with him. I read the message and the proposed answer. All he did was suggest that it should be

made more personal and direct by the insertion of the words my dear Nikki and the addition at the end of the signature Georgie. And so as July 1914 came to an end, there was a frenzy of diplomatic Messages between European capitals. For many military leaders though, it was too late for any more talk, and they began to pressure the politicians to act. On July 31st, French General Joseph Jhre asked his government to reverse its more passive policy and mobilize. President Poare described the meeting which lasted into the wee hours of August 1st. Zha appeared with

the placid face of a calm, resolute man whose only fear is lest France, outstripped by German Mobilization, the most rapid of them all, might speedily find herself in an irreparable state of inferiority. France finally mobilized at 400 p.m. on August 1st. In Berlin, Mo was having the same conversation with Chancellor Hve, and 30 minutes later, Germany announced their mobilization. By 7:00 p.m., Moscow told Berlin that Russia would not stop its mobilization. And so, Germany declared war on Russia. On August 2nd, German troops were on the move, not East, but west into neutral Luxembourg. This was

in accordance with the Schlieffen plan which the Germans said was a strategic necessity. The British position was still not clear. London sent ambiguous messages to Berlin suggesting that Britain might remain neutral if Germany did not attack France. Kaer Vilhim now asked Mul to abandon the Schlieffen plan and stop his armies from marching across the French border. Fun replied that stopping the Massive and complex mobilization was impossible and suicidal. The Kaiser was angry and his answer showed that he did not fully understand his own military machine. Your illustrious uncle Fulk the Elder would not have given

me such an answer. If I order it, it must be possible. Soon after, the Kaiser learned that there was no formal British offer to stay neutral and gave his armies the green light to follow the plan and Invade Belgium, Luxembourg, and France. By August 2nd, the mood in Britain had shifted towards intervention. The British informed the French that they would block any German naval movements in the channel and would uphold Belgian neutrality. Belgian neutrality was Britain's final red line, but it was a line that Germany had already begun to cross. The same day, Germany delivered

an ultimatum to Belgium that it had prepared back on July 26th. The Germans Claimed the French planned to enter Belgium, so Germany had no choice but to move in preemptively. If Belgium resisted, the Germans would consider it an enemy. Brussels replied to Berlin on August 3rd. The intentions Germany ascribes to France are in contradiction with the formal declarations made to us. The infringement of Belgium's independence, with which the German governments threaten her, would constitute a Flagrant violation of international law. No strategic interest justifies such a breach of law. The Belgian government is firmly resolved to

repel every infringement of its rights by all means in its power. That same day, the final dominoes began to fall. Italy declared that it would stay neutral and would not join its triple alliance partners in war. Germany claimed France was about to attack it, which wasn't true, and declared war on France. On August 4th, German troops marched into Belgium. Belgium appealed to Britain, France, and Russia to guarantee her independence, and Britain declared war on Germany. By August 4th, the great powers of Europe were at war, and the First World War had begun. In the next

four years, roughly 20 million people would be killed or die of disease and hunger. But even before the killing stopped, debates were raging about the war's origins and who was to blame. And They haven't stopped since. Shortly after the outbreak of the war, each of the powers published a so-called color book, making its case as to how to understand the July crisis and basically blaming the other side. After the war, each side still blamed the other, and the allies put the responsibility squarely on the central powers in the post-war peace treaties. Since then, the evidence

of 1914 has been interpreted in many different ways, as historians have Tried to answer who was at fault for starting the war. For years, many historians concluded that all the powers shared some of the blame for the war beginning. Then in the 1960s, German historian Fritz Fischer made one of the most influential arguments. He claimed that the German government and military elites had grandiose plans and wanted to achieve them through war. The Fischer School claims Germany had long planned a war aimed against Russia and France and Directly led Austrohungarian actions in order to escalate events.

More recently, other single powers have been fingered for their role in the crisis. Shawn McMaken emphasized that Russia's actions turned a Balkan war into a continental one and Nile Ferguson blamed Britain for its mistakes and naive tape. Some other recent interpretations like Christopher Clark's sleepwalker theory suggests the war was largely and resulted from miscalculations, Misunderstandings, and perceived insecurities. He argues that Germany felt Russia and Britain were unlikely to become involved and tried its best to localize the conflict in the Balkans. Another debate centers around whether the war was inevitable. Here the recent consensus is that

the alliance system did not force any state to fight as Italy proved by staying neutral in 1914. This line of thinking stresses that there were many times when things might Have taken a different turn, like if Austria had acted more quickly against Serbia or if Britain had taken a clear position right from the start of the crisis. There's also discussion about culture and mentality in 1914. Historian James Joel, for example, suggests that the cultural, military, and strategic zeitgeist saw war as a practical and indeed desirable tool for social change and defense of national interests. Since

modern war also involved the need for a Quick mobilization via rail timets, military commanders became as or even more important than politicians in the crisis. But their inflexible strategies could not respond to the political needs. So perceived military necessity dictated political action. Russian politicians wanted partial mobilization not to scare Germany, but did just that. And German politicians did not want to bring Britain into the war, but their armies marched into Belgium and did just That. This was the exact opposite of Clausvitz's concept that war is politics by other means. And it's an important aspect of

understanding how the crisis ended in a world war. The war that started with the July crisis in 1914 lasted more than 4 years. But the war amongst historians to make sense of it all still rages more than a century later. Since you made it to the end of this video, you're probably a fan of detailed History documentaries. We actually produced three documentary series with a combined runtime of more than 9 hours. 16 Days in Berlin and Rhineland 45 feature the last battles of World War II in Europe. And our series Red Atoms breaks down the

Soviet nuclear program from its origins to the Chernobyl disaster and beyond. Unfortunately, we couldn't upload these series to YouTube where we have to navigate advertising guidelines and the almighty algorithm. So, where can you watch 16 Days in Berlin, Rhineline 45, and Red Adams? On Nebula, a streaming service we're building together with other creators. If you sign up at nebula.tv/theg TV/theg greatatewar. You can watch all our documentaries, including everything we upload to YouTube, ad free, and in 4K resolution. And all that for just $36 for an entire year. Nebula is available on smartphones, Apple TV, Roku,

and more. A year of Nebula is also a great Gift, by the way. And with the holidays fast approaching, you can gift a loved one a year of smart creator documentaries from us or other creators like Epic History TV and their incredible coverage of the Napoleonic Wars. Whether you sign up for Nebula for yourself or gift it to someone else, you will also support our work directly. Again, that's nebula.tv/thegatewar for 40% off and just $36 for an entire year. Again, that's nebula.tv/theg TV/theg greatatewar for a great deal that also supports this channel. We want to

thank Marcos Link, Spencer Jones, Dimmitri Petrovvic, Plamemen Ganv, Murad Doan, Vasilis Aanazio, and Bill Gelik for their help with this documentary. To learn more about the first months of the First World War, check out our documentary about that on our channel. If you're watching this video on Nebula or Patreon, thank you so much for the support. We couldn't do it without you. I'm Jesse Alexander and this is a production of Real Time History, the only history channel that stays out of any pig war.